Wind Energy is the most mature and developed renewable energy.

It generates
electricity through wind, by using the kinetic energy produced by the effect of air
currents. It is a source of clean and renewable energy, which reduces the emission
of greenhouse effect gases and preserves the environment.
Wind energy is a type of energy used to make electricity, like fossil fuels or nuclear
power. Wind energy harvests energy from the wind and converts it into electrical
power. Wind is created by temperature changes in the atmosphere. As warm air
rises, cool air moves into the area, and the movement creates what we know as
wind. The diagram shows the process of wind formation over a body of water, which
is a very common place for wind energy to be harvested.
Wind formation from the cool air (blue) flowing into the warm air (red)Wind power
converts the kinetic energy in wind to generate electricity or mechanical power. This
is done by using a large wind turbine usually consisting of propellers; the turbine can
be connected to a generator to generate electricity or the wind used as mechanical
power to perform tasks such as pumping water or grinding grain. As the wind passes
through the turbines it moves the blades, which spins the shaft.
Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent years.
As of 30 June 2018, the total installed wind power capacity was 34.293 GW, the
fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.Wind power capacity is
mainly spread across the South, West and North regions.

Wind turbines work on a simple principle: instead of using

electricity to make wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to
make electricity. Wind turns the propeller-like blades of a turbine
around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates electricity.

Explore a Wind Turbine

Types of Wind Turbines

Sizes of Wind Turbines

Learn More

Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three

concurrent events:

1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere

2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.

Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly across the United
States and are modified by bodies of water, vegetation, and
differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion
energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even
generating electricity.

The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the
process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power
or electricity. This mechanical power can be used for specific
tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator
can convert this mechanical power into electricity.

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the

aerodynamic force from the rotor blades, which work like an
airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases.
The difference in air pressure across the two sides of the blade
creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the
drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the
generator, either directly (if it’s a direct drive turbine) or through
a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the
rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This
translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator
creates electricity.

What is Wind Energy? Is Wind Energy Renewable?

The utilization of wind to generate mechanical power or electricity is referred
to as wind power or wind energy. Wind turbines are devices that harness
the kinetic energy of the wind and transform it into mechanical energy. A
generator can take this mechanical energy and turn it into electricity for
general consumption or for a specific purpose, like grinding grain or
pumping water.
Because it is generated by ever-replenishing natural processes, the wind is
considered a renewable energy source. It’s one of the earliest forms of
energy used by mankind, and now it’s the most well-known and effective
renewable energy option available. So, it’s a yes to the question is wind
energy is renewable. After this, let’s learn about the principle of wind
energy conversion.

What is the Basic Principle of Wind Energy

Conversion?

Basically, there are two primary physical principles by which wind energy
can be extracted from the wind. This can be done either through drag or lift
force or through a combination of the two. The difference between lift and
drag is illustrated by the difference between using a Bermuda rig, the
familiar triangular sail which deflects with wind and allows a sailing boat to
travel across the wind or slightly into the wind, and a spinnaker sail, which
fills like a parachute and pulls a sailing boat with the wind.

The drag forces provide the most obvious means of thrust, these forces are
felt by an object or a person exposed to the wind. On the contrary, the lift
forces are the most efficient means of thrust but being more subtle than
drag forces the former forces are not so well understood. These are the
basic features characterizing drag and lift force.
 ● Drag force is in the air flow’s direction whereas lift force is
perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
● Whenever lift force is generated, it causes a certain amount of drag
to be developed.
● Generally, lift devices are more efficient than drag devices. This
should have helped you understand the principle of wind energy
conversion.

What is Accurate Wind Energy Definition and

Examples?

After understanding principle of wind energy conversion, let’s learn about

wind energy definition and examples. The wind energy definition simply
states that wind energy is sustainable since it is clean, renewable, and
abundant. Wind turbines turn the energy of the wind into electricity every
day all around the world. Clean, renewable energy from the wind is
becoming increasingly essential as a source of global power.
Power from the wind can be converted into usable electricity thanks to the
invention of wind turbines. When the wind is blowing, the blades spin in a
clockwise direction, generating power for the turbine. This causes the wind
turbine’s primary shaft, coupled to a gearbox within the nacelle, to rotate.
The wind power is transferred from the gearbox to the generator. A
transformer then steps in to convert the voltage of the electricity so that it is
compatible with the rest of the grid.
Examples of Wind Energy are-
Typically, wind farms are used to generate wind energy. Onshore wind
farms are often utilized for other purposes, such as grazing animals. Some
are offshore, which implies they’re over water.

● The first wind farm ever built was in New Hampshire. It can be found
atop Crotched Mountain in this state. U.S. Wind power, the
developers, installed 200 wind turbines with a combined producing
capacity of 600 kW.
● Alta Wind Energy Center, often known as the Mojave Wind Farm, is
the world’s second-largest onshore wind energy facility. It has 600
turbines with considerable additional expansion planned. It can
produce 1,550 MW at present, and that number might rise to 3,050
MW with future expansion. Wisely positioned in California’s
 Tehachapi Pass, between San Joaquin and the Mojave Desert, the
location is very windy.
● Currently, Walney is the world’s largest offshore wind farm. It is
situated in the Irish Sea off the coast of Cumbria, England. It holds an
enormous capacity of generating about 659 MW of power. It powers
up to 600,000 homes.
● China is now in the midst of constructing the Gansu Wind Farm.
Construction of the enormous onshore wind farm has begun in the
desert not far from the Jiuquan province. By 2020, we hope to have
completed this project. The facility’s intended output is 20 gigawatts.

What are the Types of Wind Energy?

The wind is theoretically a form of solar energy because it is created by the

uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the imperfections of the
planet’s surface, and the rotation of the earth. The kinetic energy of the
airflows around the planet is harnessed by wind turbines, which are then
converted into electricity. In a nutshell, wind turbines use the rotation of the
blades to generate electricity by turning a generator. The blades of a wind
turbine are turned by the wind, which in turn spins a shaft attached to a
generator.
Depending on the location of the wind turbines, there are currently two
distinct types of wind energy.
1. Onshore wind energy: By capturing the wind in land-based wind farms,
onshore wind energy is responsible for generating electricity. As a means
to this purpose, we set up wind turbines that can convert the kinetic energy
of the wind into usable power that is then fed into the grid.
2. Offshore wind energy: This type of wind energy is obtained by using the
force of the wind that is produced on the high seas. Here the wind energy
reaches a more constant and higher speed than on land. This happens
because the high seas have the absence of barriers. Megastructures are
installed in order to make the most out of this resource. These structures
are seated on the seabed and are also equipped with the latest
technological innovations.

What are Some Uses of Wind Energy?

Wind energy is a very popular form of renewable energy and it’s used in
many sectors. These are some uses of wind energy-

● Wind Power Generation: Creating electricity is a common application

of wind power. A wind turbine is used to convert the wind’s kinetic
energy into usable electricity. The wind turns the blades of the
turbine, which spins a generator, which in turn generates power.
● Transportation: Wind power can also be put to use in the
transportation sector. Wind power has been used for sailing by
civilizations for thousands of years. Sailing may have existed in its
modern form as early as 5000 BC, according to the available
evidence. In modern times, we have witnessed both little and huge
ships that can sail using only the power of the wind.
● Producing Food: The harvesting of crops has long made use of wind
energy. Windmills were commonly employed to grind grain into flour
before the advent of modern industrial milling machinery.
● Pumping water: In addition to the previously mentioned applications,
a wind pump can also be used to pump water using only wind
energy. Although they resemble classic windmills, modern wind
pumps are used to move water rather than grain.
● Sports or wind sports: Wind sports are a fun way to put wind power to
work. Some sports that harness the power of the wind are:
Windsurfing is a type of sailing in which a mast and sail are mounted
to a surfboard, which the sailor stands on to steer. Sailing is a more
conventional application of wind power, and it is employed in
competitive sports where individuals or teams race against one
another.

How a Wind Turbine Works

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the

aerodynamic force from the rotor blades, which work like an
airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases.
The difference in air pressure across the two sides of the blade
creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the
drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the
generator, either directly (if it's a direct drive turbine) or through
a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the
rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This
translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator
creates electricity.

How a Wind Plant Works

Wind power plants produce electricity by having an array of wind

turbines in the same location. The placement of a wind power
plant is impacted by factors such as wind conditions, the
surrounding terrain, access to electric transmission, and other
siting considerations. In a utility-scale wind plant, each turbine
generates electricity which runs to a substation where it then
transfers to the grid where it powers our communities.

Transmission
Transmission lines carry electricity at high voltages over long
distances from wind turbines and other energy generators to
areas where that energy is needed.

Transformers

Transformers receive AC (alternating current) electricity at one

voltage and increase or decrease the voltage to deliver the
electricity as needed. A wind power plant will use a step-up
transformer to increase the voltage (thus reducing the required
current), which decreases the power losses that happen when
transmitting large amounts of current over long distances with
transmission lines. When electricity reaches a community,
transformers reduce the voltage to make it safe and useable by
buildings and homes in that community.
Substation

A substation links the transmission system to the distribution

system that delivers electricity to the community. Within the
substation, transformers convert electricity from high voltages to
lower voltages which can then be delivered safely to electricity
consumers.
Wind Turbine Tower

Made from tubular steel, the tower supports the structure of the
turbine. Towers usually come in three sections and are assembled
on-site. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers
enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity. Winds at elevations of 30 meters (roughly 100 feet) or
higher are also less turbulent.
Wind Direction

Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbines—like the

one shown here—face into the wind while downwind turbines face
away. Most utility-scale land-based wind turbines are upwind
turbines.
Wind Vane

The wind vane measures wind direction and communicates with

the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the
wind.
Anemometer

The anemometer measures wind speed and transmits wind speed

data to the controller.
Blades

Most turbines have three blades which are made mostly of

fiberglass. Turbine blades vary in size, but a typical modern
land-based wind turbine has blades of over 170 feet (52 meters).
The largest turbine is GE's Haliade-X offshore wind turbine, with
blades 351 feet long (107 meters) – about the same length as a
football field. When wind flows across the blade, the air pressure
on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The
force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor
to spin.
Land-Based Gearbox Turbine

The drivetrain on a turbine with a gearbox is comprised of the

rotor, main bearing, main shaft, gearbox, and generator. The
drivetrain converts the low-speed, high-torque rotation of the
turbine’s rotor (blades and hub assembly) into electrical energy.
Nacelle

The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gearbox, low-
and high-speed shafts, generator, and brake. Some nacelles are
larger than a house and for a 1.5 MW geared turbine, can weigh
more than 4.5 tons.
Yaw System

The yaw drive rotates the nacelle on upwind turbines to keep

them facing the wind when wind direction changes. The yaw
motors power the yaw drive to make this happen.

Downwind turbines don’t require a yaw drive because the wind

manually blows the rotor away from it.
Pitch System

The pitch system adjusts the angle of the wind turbine's blades
with respect to the wind, controlling the rotor speed. By adjusting
the angle of a turbine's blades, the pitch system controls how
much energy the blades can extract. The pitch system can also
"feather" the blades, adjusting their angle so they do not produce
force that would cause the rotor to spin. Feathering the blades
slows the turbine's rotor to prevent damage to the machine when
wind speeds are too high for safe operation.
Hub

Part of the turbine's drivetrain, turbine blades fit into the hub that
is connected to the turbine's main shaft.
Gearbox

The drivetrain is comprised of the rotor, main bearing, main shaft,

gearbox, and generator. The drivetrain converts the low-speed,
high-torque rotation of the turbine's rotor (blades and hub
assembly) into electrical energy.
Rotor

The blades and hub together form the turbine's rotor.

Low-Speed Shaft

Part of the turbine's drivetrain, the low-speed shaft is connected

to the rotor and spins between 8–20 rotations per minute.
Main Shaft Bearing

Part of the turbine's drivetrain, the main bearing supports the

rotating low-speed shaft and reduces friction between moving
parts so that the forces from the rotor don't damage the shaft.
High-Speed Shaft

Part of the turbine's drivetrain, the high-speed shaft connects to

the gearbox and drives the generator.
Generator

The generator is driven by the high-speed shaft. Copper windings

turn through a magnetic field in the generator to produce
electricity. Some generators are driven by gearboxes (shown
here) and others are direct-drives where the rotor attaches
directly to the generator.
Controller

The controller allows the machine to start at wind speeds of about

7–11 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine when wind
speeds exceed 55–65 mph. The controller turns off the turbine at
higher wind speeds to avoid damage to different parts of the
turbine. Think of the controller as the nervous system of the
turbine.
Brake

Turbine brakes are not like brakes in a car. A turbine brake keeps
the rotor from turning after it's been shut down by the pitch
system. Once the turbine blades are stopped by the controller,
the brake keeps the turbine blades from moving, which is
necessary for maintenance.
Direct-Drive Offshore Wind Turbine

Direct-drive turbines simplify nacelle systems and can increase

efficiency and reliability by avoiding gearbox issues. They work by
connecting the rotor directly to the generator to generate
electricity.
Direct-Drive Offshore Wind Vane and Anemometer

The wind vane measures wind direction and communicates with

the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the
wind.

The anemometer measures wind speed and transmits wind speed

data to the controller.
Direct-Drive Yaw System

The yaw motors power the yaw drive, which rotates the nacelle
on upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the wind
direction changes.
Direct-Drive Generator Blades

Most turbines have three blades which are made mostly of

fiberglass. When wind flows across the blade, the air pressure on
one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The
force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor
to spin. Blades on GE's Haliade X turbine are 351 feet long (107
meters) – about the same length as a football field!
Direct-Drive Pitch System

The pitch system adjusts the angle of the wind turbine's blades
with respect to the wind, controlling the rotor speed. By adjusting
the angle of a turbine's blades, the pitch system controls how
much energy the blades can extract. The pitch system can also
"feather" the blades, adjusting their angle so they do not produce
force that would cause the rotor to spin. Feathering the blades
slows the turbine’s rotor to prevent damage to the machine when
wind speeds are too high for safe operation.
Direct-Drive Hub

Turbine blades fit into the hub that is connected to the turbine's
generator.
Direct-Drive Rotor

The blades and hub together form the turbine's rotor.

Direct-Drive Generator

Direct-drive generators don't rely on a gearbox to generate

electricity. They generate power using a giant ring of permanent
magnets that spin with the rotor to produce electric current as
they pass through stationary copper coils. The large diameter of
the ring allows the generator to create a lot of power when
turning at the same speed as the blades (8–20 rotations per
minute), so it doesn't need a gearbox to speed it up to the
thousands of rotations per minute other generators require.
Direct-Drive Controller

The controller allows the machine to start at wind speeds of about

7–11 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine when wind
speeds exceed 55–65 mph. The controller turns off the turbine at
higher wind speeds to avoid damage to different parts of the
turbine. Think of the controller as the nervous system of the
turbine.
Direct-Drive Brake

Turbine brakes are not like brakes in a car. A turbine brake keeps
the rotor from turning after it's been shut down by the pitch
system. Once the turbine blades are stopped by the controller,
the brake keeps the turbine blades from moving, which is
necessary for maintenance.
Direct-Drive Rotor Bearing

The rotor bearing supports the main shaft and reduces friction
between moving parts so that the forces from the rotor don't
damage the shaft.
Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most
sustainable ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic
pollution or global warming emissions. Wind is also abundant,
inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a viable and
large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.

Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental

impacts associated with wind power generation that should be
recognized and mitigated.

Land use
The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially
depending on the site: wind turbines placed in flat areas typically
use more land than those located in hilly areas. However, wind
turbines do not occupy all of this land; they must be spaced
approximately 5 to 10 rotor diameters apart (a rotor diameter is the
diameter of the wind turbine blades). Thus, the turbines themselves
and the surrounding infrastructure (including roads and
transmission lines) occupy a small portion of the total area of a
wind facility.

A survey by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory of large

wind facilities in the United States found that they use between 30
and 141 acres per megawatt of power output capacity (a typical new
utility-scale wind turbine is about 2 megawatts). However, less than
1 acre per megawatt is disturbed permanently and less than 3.5
acres per megawatt are disturbed temporarily during construction
[1]. The remainder of the land can be used for a variety of other
productive purposes, including livestock grazing, agriculture,
highways, and hiking trails [2]. Alternatively, wind facilities can be
sited on brownfields (abandoned or underused industrial land) or
other commercial and industrial locations, which significantly
reduces concerns about land use [3].

Offshore wind facilities require larger amounts of space because the

turbines and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts.
Depending on their location, such offshore installations may
compete with a variety of other ocean activities, such as fishing,
recreational activities, sand and gravel extraction, oil and gas
extraction, navigation, and aquaculture. Employing best practices in
planning and siting can help minimize potential land use impacts of
offshore and land-based wind projects [4].

Wildlife and habitat

The impact of wind turbines on wildlife, most notably on birds and
bats, has been widely document and studied. A recent National
Wind Coordinating Committee (NWCC) review of peer-reviewed
research found evidence of bird and bat deaths from collisions with
wind turbines and due to changes in air pressure caused by the
spinning turbines, as well as from habitat disruption. The NWCC
concluded that these impacts are relatively low and do not pose a
threat to species populations [5].
Additionally, research into wildlife behavior and advances in wind
turbine technology have helped to reduce bird and bat deaths. For
example, wildlife biologists have found that bats are most active
when wind speeds are low. Using this information, the Bats and
Wind Energy Cooperative concluded that keeping wind turbines
motionless during times of low wind speeds could reduce bat deaths
by more than half without significantly affecting power production
[6]. Other wildlife impacts can be mitigated through better siting of
wind turbines. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services has played a
leadership role in this effort by convening an advisory group
including representatives from industry, state and tribal
governments, and nonprofit organizations that made
comprehensive recommendations on appropriate wind farm siting
and best management practices [7].

Offshore wind turbines can have similar impacts on marine birds,

but as with onshore wind turbines, the bird deaths associated with
offshore wind are minimal. Wind farms located offshore will also
impact fish and other marine wildlife. Some studies suggest that
turbines may actually increase fish populations by acting as
artificial reefs. The impact will vary from site to site, and therefore
proper research and monitoring systems are needed for each
offshore wind facility [8].

Public health and community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and
community concerns associated with operating wind turbines. Most
of the sound generated by wind turbines is aerodynamic, caused by
the movement of turbine blades through the air. There is also
mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall sound
levels depend on turbine design and wind speed.

Some people living close to wind facilities have complained about

sound and vibration issues, but industry and
government-sponsored studies in Canada and Australia have found
that these issues do not adversely impact public health [9].
However, it is important for wind turbine developers to take these
community concerns seriously by following “good neighbor” best
practices for siting turbines and initiating open dialogue with
affected community members. Additionally, technological advances,
such as minimizing blade surface imperfections and using
sound-absorbent materials can reduce wind turbine noise [10].

Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines can create an effect

known as shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with
careful siting, planting trees or installing window awnings, or
curtailing wind turbine operations when certain lighting conditions
exist [11].

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that large wind

turbines, like all structures over 200 feet high, have white or red
lights for aviation safety. However, the FAA recently determined
that as long as there are no gaps in lighting greater than a half-mile,
it is not necessary to light each tower in a multi-turbine wind
project. Daytime lighting is unnecessary as long as the turbines are
painted white.

When it comes to aesthetics, wind turbines can elicit strong

reactions. To some people, they are graceful sculptures; to others,
they are eyesores that compromise the natural landscape. Whether
a community is willing to accept an altered skyline in return for
cleaner power should be decided in an open public dialogue [12].

Water use
There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind
turbines. As in all manufacturing processes, some water is used to
manufacture steel and cement for wind turbines.

Life-cycle global warming emissions

 While there are no global warming emissions associated with
operating wind turbines, there are emissions associated with other
stages of a wind turbine’s life-cycle, including materials production,
materials transportation, on-site construction and assembly,
operation and maintenance, and decommissioning and
dismantlement.

Estimates of total global warming emissions depend on a number of

factors, including wind speed, percent of time the wind is blowing,
and the material composition of the wind turbine [13]. Most
estimates of wind turbine life-cycle global warming emissions are
between 0.02 and 0.04 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour. To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global
warming emissions for natural gas generated electricity are between
0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour
and estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds
of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour [14].

Land use[edit]
2
Wind power has low life-cycle surface power density of 1.84 W/m which is three orders of
3
magnitude (10 times, which is equivalent to 1,000x) less than nuclear or fossil fuel power and 3x
[86]
less than PV.
Wind farms are often built on land that has already been impacted by land clearing. The
vegetation clearing and ground disturbance required for wind farms are minimal compared with
coal mines and coal-fired power stations. If wind farms are decommissioned, the landscape can
[87]
be returned to its previous condition.
A study by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory of US wind farms built between 2000
and 2009 found that, on average, only 1.1 percent of the total wind farm area suffered surface
disturbance, and only 0.43 percent was permanently disturbed by wind power installations. On
average, there were 63 hectares (160 acres) of total wind farm area per MW of capacity, but only
[88]
0.27 hectares (0.67 acres) of permanently disturbed area per MW of wind power capacity.
In the UK many prime wind farm sites – locations with the best average wind speeds – are in
upland areas that are frequently covered by blanket bog. This type of habitat exists in areas of
relatively high rainfall where large areas of land remain permanently sodden. Construction work
may create a risk of disruption to peatland hydrology which could cause localised areas of peat
within the area of a wind farm to dry out, disintegrate, and so release their stored carbon. At the
same time, the warming climate which renewable energy schemes seek to mitigate could itself
[89][90]
pose an existential threat to peatlands throughout the UK. A Scottish MEP campaigned for
a moratorium on wind developments on peatlands saying that "Damaging the peat causes the
[91]
release of more carbon dioxide than wind farms save". A 2014 report for the Northern Ireland
Environment Agency noted that siting wind turbines on peatland could release considerable
carbon dioxide from the peat, and also damage the peatland contributions to flood control and
water quality: "The potential knock-on effects of using the peatland resource for wind turbines are
considerable and it is arguable that the impacts on this facet of biodiversity will have the most
[92]
noticeable and greatest financial implications for Northern Ireland." Wind farm construction
near wetlands has been linked to several bog landslides in Ireland that have polluted rivers, such
[93][94]
as at Derrybrien (2003) and Meenbog (2020). Such incidents could be prevented with
stricter planning procedures and siting guidelines.
[95]

Wind-energy advocates contend that less than 1% of the land is used for foundations and access
[12] 2
roads, the other 99% can still be used for farming. A wind turbine needs about 200–400 m for
the foundation. With the increasing size of the wind turbine the relative size of the foundation
[96]
decreases. Critics point out that on some locations in forests the clearing of trees around
tower bases may be necessary for installation sites on mountain ridges, such as in the
[97] 2 [98]
northeastern U.S. This usually takes the clearing of 5,000 m per wind turbine.
During construction of wind farms in Scotland in 2007–2008 over 3.4 million trees were removed
[99]
on 6202 acres of forest, out of which 31.5% has been replanted.
Turbines are not generally installed in urban areas. Buildings interfere with the wind, turbines
must be sited a safe distance ("setback") from residences in case of failure, and the value of land
is high. There are a few notable exceptions to this. The WindShare ExPlace wind turbine was
erected in December 2002, on the grounds of Exhibition Place, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It
[100]
was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre. Steel Winds
also has a 20 MW urban project south of Buffalo, New York. Both of these projects are in urban
locations, but benefit from being on uninhabited lakeshore property.
In Greece, wind turbine sites have been installed "on mountain peaks, in forests, near
archaeological sites, on islands, in protected habitats" and in highly populated tourist areas,
[101][102]
causing disruption to hospitality business and protests of residents.

Livestock[edit]

The land can still be used for farming and cattle grazing. Livestock is unaffected by the presence
of wind farms. International experience shows that livestock will "graze right up to the base of
[87]
wind turbines and often use them as rubbing posts or for shade".
In 2014, a first of its kind veterinary study attempted to determine the effects of rearing livestock
near a wind turbine, the study compared the health effects of a wind turbine on the development
of two groups of growing geese, preliminary results found that geese raised within 50 meters of a
wind turbine gained less weight and had a higher concentration of the stress hormone cortisol in
[103]
their blood than geese at a distance of 500 meters.
[104]
Semi-domestic reindeer avoid the construction activity, but seem unaffected when the
[105][106]
turbines are operating.
Impact on wildlife[edit]
Environmental assessments are routinely carried out for wind farm proposals, and potential
[87]
impacts on the local environment (e.g. plants, animals, soils) are evaluated. Turbine locations
and operations are often modified as part of the approval process to avoid or minimise impacts
on threatened species and their habitats. Any unavoidable impacts can be offset with
[87]
conservation improvements of similar ecosystems which are unaffected by the proposal.
A research agenda from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government,
supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future, suggests modeling the
spatiotemporal patterns of migratory and residential wildlife with respect to geographic features
and weather, to provide a basis for science-based decisions about where to site new wind
projects. More specifically, it suggests:
● Use existing data on migratory and other movements of wildlife to develop predictive
models of risk.
● Use new and emerging technologies, including radar, acoustics, and thermal
imaging, to fill gaps in knowledge of wildlife movements.
● Identify specific species or sets of species most at risk in areas of high potential wind
[107]
resources.
Wind turbines, like many other human activities and buildings, also increase the death rate of
avian creatures such as birds and bats. A summary of the existing field studies compiled in 2010
from the National Wind Coordinating Collaborative identified fewer than 14 and typically less than
four bird deaths per installed megawatt per year, but a wider variation in the number of bat
[108][globalize]
deaths. Like other investigations, it concluded that some species (e.g. migrating bats
and songbirds) are known to be harmed more than others and that factors such as turbine siting
can be important. However, many details, as well as the overall impact from the growing number
[109][110][better source needed]
of turbines, remain unclear. The National Renewable Energy
[111]
Laboratory maintains a database of the scientific literature on the subject.

Birds[edit]

Arctic terns and a wind turbine at the Eider Barrage in Germany.

The impact of wind energy on birds, which can fly into turbines, or have their habitats degraded
by wind development, is complex. Displacement is thought to be more of a threat to species than
[112] [113][114]
collisions. Habitat loss is highly variable between species.
 [115][116][117] [118][119][120]
Hundreds of thousands of birds, including raptors and migrants, are killed
[20]
each year because of wind turbines and their power lines, but this is less than the number
[121]
killed (or not born) because of fossil fuel (coal and gas) power stations. Wind farms are
estimated to be responsible for losing less than 0.4 birds per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity
[122]
generated, compared to over 5 birds per GWh for fossil fueled power stations. As well as
[123]
threatening extinction, one of the effects of climate change is to already cause a decline in
[124] [125][18][110][126]
bird population, and this is the main cause of bird loss from fossil power.
On some important migration routes turbines are banned, or birds may alter their flight paths to
[127]
avoid them. Biological surveys beforehand and correctly siting turbines is very important,
[121]
especially for raptors as they are slow to breed. Methods to help birds avoid turbines include
[128] [129]
painting of one of the turbine blades black, and making ultrasonic noise. Some
[130][131]
approaching birds can be spotted, for example by avian radar, in time for turbines to be
[132]
slowed to a speed which is safe for them. Wind farms may need more power lines, and lines
[133][134]
may be made less damaging to compensate. Making permits for the number of birds
(such as eagles) killed tradeable has been suggested, in order to save the most birds at the least
[135]
cost.

Bats[edit]

Bats may be injured by direct impact with turbine blades, towers, or transmission lines. Recent
research shows that bats may also be killed when suddenly passing through a low air pressure
[136]
region surrounding the turbine blade tips. The numbers of bats killed by existing onshore and
[137]
near-shore facilities have troubled bat enthusiasts. In April 2009 the Bats and Wind Energy
Cooperative released initial study results showing a 73% drop in bat fatalities when wind farm
[138]
operations are stopped during low wind conditions, when bats are most active. Bats avoid
radar transmitters, and placing microwave transmitters on wind turbine towers may reduce the
[139][140]
number of bat collisions.
It is hypothesized that a portion of bat fatalities are attributed to the wind displacement caused by
the wind turbine blades as they move through the air causing insects in the area to become
[141]
disoriented making it a dense area of prey – an attractive hunting ground for bats. To combat
this phenomenon ultrasonic deterrents have been tested on select wind turbines and has been
[141]
shown to reduce bat fatalities from collision and barotrauma. Testing of the ultrasonic
deterrents has shown significantly reduced bat activity around wind turbines; according to study
done in Zzyzyx, California, bat activity was reduced by 89.6–97.5% when ultrasonic acoustic
[141]
deterrents were used.
A 2013 study produced an estimate that wind turbines killed more than 600,000 bats in the U.S.
the previous year, with the greatest mortality occurring in the Appalachian Mountains. Some
earlier studies had produced estimates of between 33,000 and 888,000 bat deaths per
[142]
year. Mortality, specifically in migratory birds and bats, seems to be increased in locations
[143]
where wind patterns seem to facilitate both migration paths and energy production.

Marine life[edit]
Wind farms designed to be more efficient from lack of airflow-impeding obstacles, offshore wind
farms, have altered marine ecosystems by providing refuge from humans in the form of
fishing-restricted areas due to safety concerns of moving blades. Interestingly, the regions of
refuge are not directly at the location of the wind turbines but rather slightly closer to shore. As an
example, new colonies of Blue Mussels in the North Sea fed by phytoplankton are a food source
for other predators, namely fish and crabs, and further up the food chain, pinnipeds, colloquially
known as seals. Blue Mussels also reduce turbidity in the ocean water, making for greater
underwater visibility, and leave behind their shells as shelter, further altering possible inhabitants
[144][145]
of their coastal domain.

Weather and climate change[edit]

Wind farms may affect weather in their immediate vicinity. Turbulence from spinning wind turbine
rotors increases vertical mixing of heat and water vapor that affects the meteorological conditions
[146]
downwind, including rainfall. Overall, wind farms lead to a slight warming at night and a slight
cooling during the day time. This effect can be reduced by using more efficient rotors or placing
wind farms in regions with high natural turbulence. Warming at night could "benefit agriculture by
decreasing frost damage and extending the growing season. Many farmers already do this with
[147][148][149]
air circulators".
A number of studies have used climate models to study the effect of extremely large wind farms.
One study reports simulations that show detectable changes in global climate for very high wind
farm usage, on the order of 10% of the world's land area. Wind power has a negligible effect on
global mean surface temperature, and it would deliver "enormous global benefits by reducing
[150]
emissions of CO2 and air pollutants". Another peer-reviewed study suggested that using
wind turbines to meet 10 percent of global energy demand in 2100 could actually have a
warming effect, causing temperatures to rise by 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the regions on land where the
wind farms are installed, including a smaller increase in areas beyond those regions. This is due
to the effect of wind turbines on both horizontal and vertical atmospheric circulation. Whilst
turbines installed in water would have a cooling effect, the net impact on global surface
temperatures would be an increase of 0.15 °C (0.27 °F). Author Ron Prinn cautioned against
interpreting the study "as an argument against wind power, urging that it be used to guide future
research". "We're not pessimistic about wind," he said. "We haven't absolutely proven this effect,
[151][needs update]
and we'd rather see that people undertake further research".
Another study by David Keith and Lee Miller on climactic impacts of wind power which predicted
[152]
warming when considering the area of the United States has been criticized by Mark Z.
Jacobson on the grounds of its limited geographical scope, with the argument that a large-scale
[153][154][155][156][157]
wind energy extraction would significantly lower global temperatures.

Wind Turbine Design for Wind Power

At the heart of any renewable wind power generation system is the Wind Turbine.
Wind turbine design generally comprise of a rotor, a direct current (DC) generator or
an alternating current (AC) alternator which is mounted on a tower high above the
ground.
So how are wind turbines designed to produce electricity. In its simplest terms, a
wind turbine is the opposite to a house or desktop fan. The fan uses electricity from
the mains grid to rotate and circulate the air, making wind.

Wind turbine designs on the other hand use the force of the wind to generate
electricity. The winds movement spins or rotates the turbines blades, which captures
the kinetic energy of the wind and convert this energy into a rotary motion via a shaft
to drive an electrical generator and make electricity as shown.

Typical Wind Turbine Generator Design

The image above shows the basic components that go to make up a typical wind
turbine design. A wind turbine extracts the kinetic energy from the wind by slowing
the wind down, and transferring this energy into the spinning shaft so it is important
to have a good design. The available power in the wind that is available for
harvesting depends on both the wind speed and the area that is swept by the
rotating turbine blades.

So therefore, the faster the wind speed or the larger the rotor blades the more
energy can be extracted from the wind. So we can say that wind turbine power
production depends on the interaction between the rotor blades and the wind and it
is this interaction that is important for a wind turbine design.

To help improve this interaction and therefore increase efficiency two types of wind
turbine design are available. The common horizontal axis and the vertical axis wind
turbine design. The horizontal axis wind turbine design catches more wind so the
power output is higher than that of a vertical axis wind turbine design. The
disadvantage of the horizontal axis design is that the tower required to support the
wind turbine is much higher and the design of the rotor blades has to be much better.

A Typical Wind Turbine Design

The Vertical Axis Turbine or VAWT, is easier to design and maintain but offers lower
performance than the horizontal axis types due to the high drag of its simple rotor
blade design. Most wind turbines generating electricity today either commercially or
domestically are horizontal axis machines so it is these types of wind turbine design
we will look at in this wind turbine tutorial.

The Rotor – This is the main part of a modern wind turbine design that collects the
winds energy and transforms it into mechanical power in the form of rotation. The
rotor consists of two or more laminated-wood, fibreglass or metal “rotor blades” and
a protective hub which rotates (hence its name) around a central axis.

Just like an aeroplane wing, wind turbine blades work by generating lift due to their
curved shape. The rotor blades extract part of the kinetic energy from the moving air
masses according to the lift principle at a rate determined by the wind speed and the
shape of the blades. The net result is a lift force perpendicular to the direction of flow
of the air. Then the trick is to design the rotor blade to create the right amount of
rotor blade lift and thrust producing optimum deceleration of the air and no more.

Unfortunately the turbines rotor blades do not capture 100% all of the power of the
wind as to do so would mean that the air behind the turbines blades would be
completely still and therefore not allow any more wind to pass through the blades.
The theoretical maximum efficiency that the turbines rotor blades can extract from
the wind energy amounts to between 30 and 45% and which is dependant on the
following rotor blade variables: Blade Design, Blade Number, Blade Length, Blade
Pitch/Angle, Blade Shape, and Blade Materials and Weight to name a few.

Blade Design – Rotor blade designs operate on either the principle of the lift or drag
method for extracting energy from the flowing air masses. The lift blade design
employs the same principle that enables aeroplanes, kites and birds to fly producing
a lifting force which is perpendicular to the direction of motion. The rotor blade is
essentially an aerofoil, or wing similar in shape to an aeroplane wing. As the blade
cuts through the air, a wind speed and pressure differential is created between the
upper and lower surfaces of the blade.

The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to “lift” the blade upwards,
so we want to make this force as big as possible. When the blades are attached to a
central rotational axis, like a wind turbine rotor, this lift is translated into a rotational
motion.

Opposing this lifting force is a drag force which is parallel to the direction of motion
and causes turbulence around the trailing edge of the blade as it cuts through the air.
This turbulence has a braking effect on the blade so we want to make this drag force
as small as possible. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a
propeller.

Drag designs are used more for vertical wind turbine designs which have large cup
or curved shaped blades. The wind literally pushes the blades out of the way which
are attached to a central shaft. The advantages of drag designed rotor blades is
slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities making them useful for water
pumping and farm machinery power. Lift powered wind turbines having a much
higher rotational speed than drag types and therefore are well suited for electricity
generation.

Blade Numbers – The number of rotor blades a wind turbine design has is generally
determined by the aerodynamic efficiency and cost. The ideal wind turbine design
would have many thin rotor blades but most horizontal axis wind turbine generators
have only one, two or three rotor blades.

Increasing the number of rotor blades above three gives only a small increase in
rotor efficiency but increases its cost, so more than three blades are usually not
required but small high spinning multi-bladed turbine generators are available for
home use. Generally, the fewer the number of blades, the less material is needed
during manufacturing reducing their overall cost and complexity.

Single bladed rotors have a counter balance weight on the opposite side of the rotor
but suffer from high material stress and vibration due to their unsmooth rotational
motion of the single blade which must move more rapidly to capture same amount of
wind energy.

Also with single or even double bladed rotors, most of the available air movement
and therefore wind power passes through the unswept cross-sectional area of the
turbine without interacting with the rotor decreasing their efficiency.

Multi-bladed rotors on the other hand have a smoother rotational operation and lower
noise levels. Slower rotational speeds and torque are possible with multi-bladed
designs which reduces the stresses in the drive train, resulting in lower gearbox and
generator costs. However, wind turbine designs with many blades or very wide
blades will be subject to very large forces in very strong winds which is why most
wind turbine designs use three rotor blades.
An Odd or Even Number of Rotor Blades – A wind turbine design which has an
“EVEN” number of rotor blades, 2, 4 or 6, etc, can suffer from stability problems
when rotating. This is because each rotor blade has an exact and opposite blade
which is located 180o in the opposite direction.

As the rotor rotates, the very moment the uppermost blade is pointing vertically
upwards (12 o’clock position) the lower most blade is pointing straight down in front
of the turbine support tower. The result is that the uppermost blade bends
backwards, because it receives the maximum force from the wind, called “thrust
loading”, while the lower blade passes into the wind free area directly in front of the
supporting tower.

This uneven flexing of the turbines rotor blades (uppermost bent in the wind and the
lowermost straight) at each vertical alignment produces unwanted forces on the rotor
blades and rotor shaft as the two blades flex back and forth as they rotate. For a
small rigid aluminium or steel bladed turbine this may not be a problem unlike longer
fibreglass reinforced plastic blades.

A wind turbine design which has an “ODD” number of rotor blades (at least three
blades) rotates smoother because the gyroscopic and flexing forces are more evenly
balanced across the blades increasing the stability of the turbine.

The most common odd bladed wind turbine design is that of the three bladed turbine.
The power efficiency of a three bladed rotor is slightly above that of a similar sized
two bladed rotor and due to the additional blade they can rotate slower reducing
wear and tear and noise.

Also, to avoid turbulence and interaction between the adjoining blades, the spacing
between each blade of a multi-bladed design and its rotational speed should be big
enough so that one blade will not encounter the disturbed, weaker air flow caused by
the previous blade passing the same point just before it. Because of this limitation
most odd type wind turbines have a maximum of three blades on their rotors and
generally rotate at slower speeds.

Generally, three bladed turbine rotors integrate better into the landscape, are more
aesthetically appealing and are more aerodynamically efficient than two bladed
designs which contributes to the fact that three bladed wind turbines are more
dominate in wind power generation market. Although certain manufacturers produce
two and six-blade turbines (for sail boats).

Other advantages of odd (three) bladed rotors include smoother operation, less
noise and fewer bird strikes which compensate for the disadvantage of the higher
material costs. Noise level is not affected significantly by the blade count.

Rotor Blade Length – Three factors determine how much kinetic energy can be
extracted from the wind by a wind turbine: “the density of the air”, “the speed of the
wind” and “the area of the rotor”. The density of the air depends upon how far above
sea level you are while the wind speed is controlled by the weather. However, we
can control the rotational area swept by the rotor blades by increasing their length as
the size of the rotor determines the amount of kinetic energy a wind turbine is able to
capture from the wind.

The rotor blades rotate around a central bearing forming a perfect circle of 360o as it
rotates and as we know from school, the area of a circle is given as: π.r2. So as the
swept area of the rotor increases, the area it covers also increases with the square
of the radius. Thus, doubling the length of a turbines blades results in an increase of
four times its area which allows it to receive four times as much wind energy.
However, this greatly increases the size, weight and ultimately the cost of the wind
turbine design.

One important aspect of the blade length is the rotational tip-speed of the rotor
resulting from the angular velocity. The longer the turbine blade length the faster the
rotation of the tip for a given wind speed. Likewise, for a given rotor blade length the
higher the wind speed the faster the rotation.

Then why can we not have a wind turbine design with very longer rotor blades
operating in a windy environment producing lots of free electricity from the wind. The
answer is that there becomes a point where the length of the rotor blades and the
speed velocity of the wind actually reduces the output efficiency of the turbine. This
is why many larger wind turbine designs rotate at much slower speeds.

Efficiency is a function of how fast the rotor tip rotates for a given wind speed
producing a constant wind speed to tip ratio called the “tip-speed ratio” ( λ ) which is
a dimensionless unit used to maximise the rotor efficiency. In other words, “tip-speed
ratio” (TSR) is the ratio of the speed of the rotating blade tip in rpm to the speed of
the wind in kilometers-per-hour (Kph), or miles-per-hour (mph).

A good wind turbine design will determine the rotor power for any combination of
wind and rotor speed. The larger this TSR ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind
turbine rotor at a given wind speed. The shaft speed that the rotor is fixed too is
given in revolutions per minute (rpm) and depends on the tip-speed and the diameter
of the turbines blades.

A turbines rotational speed is defined as: rpm = wind speed x tip-speed-ratio x 60 /

(diameter x π).
If a turbines rotor rotates too slowly, it allows too much wind to pass through
undisturbed, and thus does not extract as much as energy as it could. On the other
hand, if the rotor blade rotates too quickly, it appears to the wind as one large flat
rotating circular disc, which creates large amounts of drag and tip losses slowing the
rotor down. Therefore it is important to match the rotational speed of the turbine rotor
to a particular wind speed so that the optimum efficiency is obtained.

Turbine rotors with fewer blades reach their maximum efficiency at higher tip-speed
ratios and generally, three bladed wind turbine designs for electrical generation have
a tip speed ratio of between 6 and 8, but will run more smoothly because they have
three blades. On the other hand, turbines used for water pumping applications have
a lower tip speed ratio of between 1.5 and 2 as they are specially designed for high
torque generation at low speeds.

Rotor Blade Pitch/Angle – fixed design wind turbine rotor blades are generally not
straight or flat like aeroplane aerofoil wings, but instead have a small twist and taper
along their length from the tip to the root to allow for the different rotational speeds
along the blade. This twist allows for the blade to absorb the winds energy when the
wind is coming at it from different tangential angles and not just straight-on. A
straight or flat rotor blade will stop giving lift and may even stop (stall), if the rotor
blade is hit by the wind at different angles, called the “angle of attack” especially if
this angle of attack is too steep.

Therefore, to keep the rotor blade seeing an optimum angle of attack increasing lift
and efficiency, wind turbine design blades are generally twisted throughout the length
of the blade. In addition, this twist in the wind turbine design keeps the rotor blades
from spinning too fast in high wind speeds.

However, for very large-scale wind turbine designs used for electrical power
generation, this twisting of the blades can make their construction very complicated
and expensive, so some other form of aerodynamic control is used to keep the
blades angle of attack perfectly aligned with the wind direction.

The aerodynamic power produced by the wind turbine can be controlled by adjusting
the pitch angle of the wind turbine in relationship to the angle of attack of the wind as
each blade is rotated about its longitudinal axis. Then rotor blades with pitch control
can be flatter and more straight but generally these large blades have a similar twist
in their geometry but much smaller to optimise the tangential loading on the rotor
blade.
Each rotor blade has a rotational twist mechanism, either passive or dynamic built
into the root of the blade, producing a uniform incremental pitch control along its
length (constant twist). The amount of pitch required is only a few degrees as small
changes in the pitch angle can have a dramatic effect on the power output as we
know from the previous tutorial that the energy contained in the wind is proportional
to the cube of the wind speed.

One of the major advantages of rotor blade pitch control is the increase in the wind
speed window. A positive pitch angle produces a large starting torque as the rotor
begins to turn decreasing its cut-in wind speed. Likewise, in high wind speeds when
the rotors maximum speed limit is reached, the pitch can be controlled to keep the
rotors rpm from exceeding its limit by reducing their efficiency and angle of attack.

Power regulation of a wind turbine can be achieved by using pitch control on the
rotor blades to either reduce or increase the lift force on the blades by controlling the
angle of attack. Smaller rotor blades achieve this by incorporating a small twist in
their design.

Larger commercial wind turbines use pitch control either passive, with the aid of
centrifugal springs and levers (similar to helicopter rotors) or by active using small
electrical motors built into the blades hub to rotate it the required few degrees. The
principal disadvantages of pitch control are reliability and cost.

Blade Construction – the kinetic energy extracted from the wind is influenced by
the geometry of the rotor blades and determining the aerodynamically optimum
blade shape and design is important.

But as well as the aerodynamic design of the rotor blade the structural design is
equally important. The structural design consists of blade material selection and
strength as the blades flex and bend by the winds energy while they rotate.

Obviously, the ideal constructional material for a rotor blade would combine the
necessary structural properties of high strength to weight ratio, high fatigue life,
stiffness, its natural vibration frequency and resistance to fatigue along with low cost
and the ability to be easily formed into the desired aerofoil shape.

The rotor blades of smaller turbines used in residential applications that range in size
from 100 watts and upwards are generally made of solid carved wood, wood
laminates or wood veneer composites as well as aluminium or steel. Wooden rotor
blades are strong, light weight, cheap, flexible and popular with most do-it-yourself
wind turbine designs as they can be easily made. However, the low strength of wood
laminates compared with other wood materials renders it unsuitable for blades with
slender designs operating at high tip speeds.

Aluminium blades are also light weight, strong and easy to work with, but are more
expensive, easily bent and suffer from metal fatigue. Likewise steel blades uses the
cheapest material and can be formed and shaped into curved panels following the
required aerofoil profile. However, it is much harder to introduce a twist into steel
panels, and together with poor fatigue properties, meaning it rusts, means that steel
is rarely used.

The rotor blades used for very large horizontal axis wind turbine design are made
from reinforced plastic composites with the most common composites consisting of
fibreglass/polyester resin, fibreglass/epoxy, fibreglass/polyester and carbon-fibre
composites. Glass-fibre and carbon-fibre composites have a substantially higher
compressive strength-to-weight ratio compared with the other materials. Also,
fibreglass is lightweight, strong, inexpensive, has good fatigue characteristics and
can be used in a variety of manufacturing processes.

The size, type and construction of the wind turbine you may need depends on your
particular application and power requirements. Small wind turbine designs range in
size from 20 watts to 50 kilowatts (kW) with smaller or “micro” (20- to 500-watt)
turbines be used in residential locations for a variety of applications such electrical
power generation for charging batteries and powering lights.

Wind energy is among the world’s fastest-growing sources of renewable energy as it

is a clean, widely distributed energy resource that is abundant, has zero fuel cost,
emissions-free power generation technology. Most modern wind turbine generators
available today are designed to be installed and used in residential type installations.

As a result, they are manufactured smaller and more lightweight allowing them to be
quickly and easily mounted directly onto a roof or onto a short pole or tower.
Installing a newer turbine generator as part of your home wind power system will
allow you to reduce most of the higher costs of maintaining and installing a taller and
more expensive turbine tower as you would have before in the past.

Hydrogen Basics
Hydrogen (H2) is an alternative fuel that can be produced from diverse domestic resources. Although
the market for hydrogen as a transportation fuel is in its infancy, government and industry are working
toward clean, economical, and safe hydrogen production and distribution for widespread use in fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). Light-duty FCEVs are now available in limited quantities to the
consumer market in localized regions domestically and around the world. The market is also emerging
for buses, material handling equipment (such as forklifts), ground support equipment, medium- and
heavy-duty trucks, marine vessels, and stationary applications. For more information, see fuel
properties and the Hydrogen Analysis Resource Center.

Hydrogen is abundant in our environment. It's stored in water (H2O), hydrocarbons (such as methane,
CH4), and other organic matter. One challenge of using hydrogen as a fuel is efficiently extracting it
from these compounds.
Currently, steam reforming—combining high-temperature steam with natural gas to extract
hydrogen—accounts for the majority of the hydrogen produced in the United States. Hydrogen can
also be produced from water through electrolysis. This is more energy intensive but can be done
using renewable energy, such as wind or solar, and avoiding the harmful emissions associated with
other kinds of energy production.

Almost all the hydrogen produced in the United States each year is used for refining petroleum,
treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods.

Although the production of hydrogen may generate emissions affecting air quality, depending on the
source, an FCEV running on hydrogen emits only water vapor and warm air as exhaust and is
considered a zero-emission vehicle. Major research and development efforts are aimed at making
these vehicles and their infrastructure practical for widespread use. This has led to the rollout of
light-duty vehicles to retail consumers, as well as the initial implementation of medium- and
heavy-duty buses and trucks in California and fleet availability in northeastern states.

Learn more about hydrogen and fuel cells from the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office.

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

Hydrogen is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The interest in
hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its ability to power fuel cells in
zero-emission vehicles, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell electric vehicle's fast
filling time and high efficiency. In fact, a fuel cell coupled with an electric motor is two to three times
more efficient than an internal combustion engine running on gasoline. Hydrogen can also serve as
fuel for internal combustion engines. However, unlike FCEVs, these produce tailpipe emissions and
are less efficient. Learn more about fuel cells.

The energy in 2.2 pounds (1 kilogram) of hydrogen gas is about the same as the energy in 1 gallon
(6.2 pounds, 2.8 kilograms) of gasoline. Because hydrogen has a low volumetric energy density, it is
stored onboard a vehicle as a compressed gas to achieve the driving range of conventional vehicles.
Most current applications use high-pressure tanks capable of storing hydrogen at either 5,000 or
10,000 pounds per square inch (psi). For example, the FCEVs in production by automotive
manufacturers and available at dealerships have 10,000 psi tanks. Retail dispensers, which are
mostly co-located at gasoline stations, can fill these tanks in 3-5 minutes. Fuel cell electric buses
currently use 5,000 psi tanks that take 10–15 minutes to fill. Other ways of storing hydrogen are under
development, including bonding hydrogen chemically with a material such as metal hydride or
low-temperature sorbent materials. Learn more about hydrogen storage.
Data from retail hydrogen fueling stations, collected and analyzed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, show
the average time spent fueling an FCEV is less than 4 minutes.

California is leading the nation in building hydrogen fueling stations for FCEVs. As of 2023, 52 retail
hydrogen stations were open to the public in California, as well as one in Hawaii, and 45 more were in
various stages of construction or planning in California. These stations are serving over 8,000 FCEVs.
California continues to provide funding toward building hydrogen infrastructure through its Clean
Transportation Program. The California Energy Commission is authorized to allocate up to $20 million
per year through 2023 and is investing in an initial 100 public stations to support and encourage these
zero-emission vehicles. In addition, retail stations are planned for some midwestern and northeastern
states, with some of those already serving fleet customers.

Vehicle manufacturers are only offering FCEVs to consumers who live in regions where hydrogen
stations exist. Non-retail stations in California and throughout the country also continue serving FCEV
fleets, including buses. Multiple distribution centers are using hydrogen to fuel material-handling
vehicles in their normal operations. In addition, several announcements have been made regarding
the production of heavy-duty vehicles, such as line-haul trucks, that will require fueling stations with
much higher capacities than existing light-duty stations. Find hydrogen fueling stations across the
United States.

Hydrogen fuel cells

A fuel cell is basically an energy conversion device that can efficiently capture and use the
power of hydrogen. There are two main types of fuel cells; stationary and portable fuel cells.
Stationary fuel cells are used as a backup power source; provide power for remote locations
and in distributed power generation. The latter is used to power personal vehicles, trucks,
buses, marine vessels, and other specialty vehicles such as lift trucks and ground support
equipment, as well as provide auxiliary power to traditional transportation technologies. How
do hydrogen fuel cells function? As shown in Figure 2, a single fuel cell consists of
electrolyte between two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode. Bipolar plated fuel cells
directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water and potentially
useful heat as the only byproducts. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only pollution-free,
but also can have more than two times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies.
In a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which is widely regarded as the most
promising for light-duty transportation, hydrogen gas flows through channels to the anode,
where a catalyst causes the hydrogen molecules to separate into protons and electrons. The
membrane allows only the protons to pass through it. While the protons are conducted
through the membrane to the other side of the cell, the stream of negativelycharged
electrons follows an external circuit to the cathode. This flow of Figure 2: Hydrogen fuel
function. [6] electrons is outputs power in the form of heat and electricity that can be used to
power the motors. The more cells that are stacked, the more energy the block can produce
or be prolonged. Hydrogen fuel cells emit zero waste, where only water vapor is produced as
the exhaust.
IV. Advantages of hydrogen as a fuel Hydrogen fuel cells play an important role in providing
power and storing them. As stated earlier, fuel cells can function as a power backup storage
for large and small scale power grids, moreover, fuel cells can provide electrical power for
remote locations. Besides stationary fuel cells, portable fuel cells play a significant role in the
transportation industry. This is due to the fact that that hydrogen is zero emission fuel and its
high efficiency; hydrogen fuel cells are two to three times more efficient than an internal
combustion engine. Other than its role in providing electrical power, hydrogen fuel is
considered the best fuel when comparing to conventional fuels in terms of emission.
Moreover, chemicals within the fuel cell, do not degrade overtime unlike batteries. This
allows for a longer duration of use and the need to dispose is eliminated. V. Disadvantages
of hydrogen as a fuel
The disadvantage of hydrogen fuel lies in the methods of storing it. Hydrogen used to power
fuel cells used in transportation needs more space to store than gasoline and diesel. This is
due to the fact that hydrogen has low energy content by volume. Overcoming this challenge
is important for light-duty vehicles because they often have limited size and weight capacity
for fuel storage. Another thing that is a disadvantage of using hydrogen is the cost of
extracting it. Currently, although hydrogen can be mass produced, it can be costly to do so
since it requires other forms of energy. Furthermore, when other energy sources are used to
extract hydrogen, a small amount of waste still end up going to the environment. VI.
Conclusion
In conclusion, although hydrogen fuel is considered the best alternative fuel to our daily
used conventional fuels; such as coals and gasoline. However, the chemical properties of
hydrogen can be a nuisance when implementing it in daily applications like motor vehicles
for daily transportation needs. Although there are companies like Toyota that are
implementing hydrogen fuel cells in their future generation of vehicles, the process still
needs further research to ensure sustainability and reliability to provide consumers with a
reason to move away from fossil-fueled vehicles. Furthermore, California has started to
provide hydrogen stations available for cars using hydrogen fuel cells to recharge, much like
electric cars recharge stations. If hydrogen, in combination with other renewable energies,
are implemented into people's daily lives and are proved to be reliable; carbon emissions will
reduce dramatically. This can result, in the repair of the ozone layer, cleaner air, and the
wellbeing of our planet. All in all, a better place will be left for future generations.

Hydrogen economy
The hydrogen economy is an umbrella term that draws together the roles hydrogen can
play alongside renewable electricity to decarbonize specific economic sectors, sub-sectors
and activities which may be technically difficult to decarbonize through other means, or

where cheaper and more energy-efficient clean solutions are not available.[2] In this context,

hydrogen economy encompasses hydrogen’s production through to end-uses in ways that

substantively contribute to avoiding the use of fossil fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions.

Most hydrogen produced today is ‘gray’ hydrogen, made from natural gas through steam
methane reforming (SMR) which accounted for 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions in

2021.[3] Low-carbon hydrogen, which is made using SMR with carbon capture and storage

('blue' hydrogen), or through electrolysis of water using renewable power ('green' hydrogen),

accounted for under 1% of production.[4] Virtually all hydrogen produced is used in oil

refining (43% in 2021) and industry (57%), principally in the manufacture of ammonia for

fertilizers, and methanol.[5]: 18, 22, 29

In its contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5°C, it is broadly envisaged that the future
hydrogen economy replaces gray hydrogen with blue and predominantly green hydrogen,

produced in greater total volumes, to provide for an expanded set of end-uses.[6] These are

likely to be in heavy industry (e.g. high temperature processes alongside electricity,

feedstock for production of green ammonia and organic chemicals, as alternative to
coal-derived coke for steelmaking), long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a

lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.[7][8] Other applications,

such as light duty vehicles and heating in buildings, are increasingly found to be out of scope

for the future hydrogen economy, primarily for economic and environmental reasons.[9][10]

These reasons include the difficulty of developing long-term storage, pipelines, and engine
equipment, safety concerns since hydrogen is highly explosive, and the inefficiency of
hydrogen compared to direct use of electricity.

The extent to which hydrogen will be used to decarbonise appropriate applications in heavy
industry, long haul transport and long-term energy storage is likely to be influenced by the
evolving production costs of low- and zero-carbon hydrogen. Estimates of future costs face
numerous uncertainties – such as the introduction of carbon taxes, geography and
geopolitics of energy, energy prices, technology choices, and their raw material requirements
– but it is likely that green hydrogen will see the greatest reductions in production cost over

time.[11]

History and contemporary rationale[edit]

Origins[edit]

The concept of the hydrogen economy, though not the term, was by geneticist J.B.S.
Haldane in 1923, who, anticipating the exhaustion of Britain’s coal reserves for power
generation, proposed a network of wind turbines to produce hydrogen for long-term energy

storage through electrolysis, to help address renewable power’s variable output.[12] The term

itself was coined by John Bockris during a talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors (GM)

Technical Center.[13] Bockris viewed it as an economy in which hydrogen, underpinned by

nuclear and solar power, would help address growing concern about fossil fuel depletion and
environmental pollution, by serving as energy carrier for end-uses in which electrification

was not suitable.[2]

A hydrogen economy was proposed by the University of Michigan to solve some of the
negative effects of using hydrocarbon fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere
(as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the
hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by Lawrence W.

Jones of the University of Michigan,[14] in which he echoed Bockris’ dual rationale of

addressing energy security and environmental challenges. Unlike Haldane and Bockris,
Jones only focused on nuclear power as the energy source for electrolysis, and principally
on the use of hydrogen in transport, where he regarded aviation and heavy goods transport

as the top priorities.[15]

Later evolution[edit]
 Contemporary view of the hydrogen economy from the International Renewable Energy Agency

A spike in attention for the hydrogen economy concept during the 2000s was repeatedly

described as hype by some critics and proponents of alternative technologies,[16][17][18] and

investors lost money in the bubble.[19] Interest in the energy carrier resurged in the 2010s,

notably with the forming of the World Hydrogen Council in 2017. Several manufacturers
released hydrogen fuel cell cars commercially, with manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai,
and industry groups in China having planned to increase numbers of the cars into the

hundreds of thousands over the next decade.[20][21]

The global scope for hydrogen’s role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.[22][23]

By the end of 2022, 70,200 hydrogen vehicles had been sold worldwide,[24] compared with

26 million plug-in electric vehicles.[25]

Contemporary takes on the hydrogen economy share earlier perspectives’ emphasis on the
complementarity of electricity and hydrogen, and the use of electrolysis as the mainstay of

hydrogen production.[26] They focus on the need to limit global warming to 1.5C and

prioritise the production, transportation and use of green hydrogen for heavy industry (e.g.

high-temperature processes alongside electricity,[27] feedstock for production of green

ammonia and organic chemicals,[28] as alternative to coal-derived coke for steelmaking),[29]

long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and

long-term energy storage.[26][30]

Current hydrogen market[edit]

Hydrogen production globally was valued at over US$155 billion in 2022 and is expected to

grow over 9% annually through 2030.[31]

In 2021, 94 million tonnes (Mt) of molecular hydrogen (H2) was produced.[32] Of this total,

approximately one sixth was as a by-product of petrochemical industry processes.[33] Most

hydrogen comes from dedicated production facilities, over 99% of which is from fossil fuels,
mainly via steam reforming of natural gas (70%) and coal gasification (30%, almost all of

which in China).[33] Less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low carbon: steam

fossil fuel reforming with carbon capture and storage, green hydrogen produced using

electrolysis, and hydrogen produced from biomass.[33] CO2 emissions from 2021 production,

at 915 MtCO2,[34] amounted to 2.5% of energy-related CO2 emissions[35] and 1.8% of global

greenhouse gas emissions.[36]

Virtually all hydrogen produced for the current market is used in oil refining (40 MtH2 in 2021)

and industry (54 MtH2).[37]: 18, 22 In oil refining, hydrogen is used, in a process known as

hydrocracking, to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as
fuels. Industrial uses mainly comprise ammonia production to make fertilisers (34 MtH2 in
2021), methanol production (15 MtH2) and the manufacture of direct reduced iron (5

MtH2).[37]: 29

Production[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen technologies

Further information: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

As of 2022, more than 95% of global hydrogen production is sourced from fossil gas and

coal without carbon abatement.[38]: 1

Color codes[edit]
Hydrogen is often referred to by various colors to indicate its origin (perhaps because gray

symbolizes "dirty hydrogen"[19]).[39]

Color Production source Notes References

green renewable electricity via electrolysis of water [41]: 28

turquoise thermal splitting of methane via methane pyrolysis [41]: 28 [42]: 2

blue hydrocarbons with carbon CCS networks required [41]: 28

capture and storage

gray fossil hydrocarbons, mainly [41]: 28 [43]: 10

steam reforming of natural gas [42]: 2

brown or fossil hydrocarbons: brown [44]: 91

black (lignite) or black coal

pink or nuclear power via electrolysis of water, or [42]: 2 [19]

purple contributing steam to natural
gas reforming

yellow sometimes understood to via photovoltaic [39]

mean solar photovoltaics, or a
mix of renewable and fossil
electricity

gold or hydrogen that occurs naturally obtained by mining; also [45]

white deep within the Earth's crust referred to as white
Methods of production[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen production

Molecular hydrogen was discovered in the Kola Superdeep Borehole. It is unclear how much

molecular hydrogen is available in natural reservoirs, but at least one company[46]

specializes in drilling wells to extract hydrogen. Most hydrogen in the lithosphere is bonded
to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen requires the consumption of a
hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil
resource and in the steam methane reforming (SMR) process produces greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide. However, in the newer methane pyrolysis process no greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide is produced. These processes typically require no further energy input
beyond the fossil fuel.

Illustrating inputs and outputs of steam reforming of natural gas, a process to produce hydrogen. As of
2020, the carbon sequestrastion step is not in commercial use.

Decomposing water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some
primary energy source (fossil fuel, nuclear power or a renewable energy). Hydrogen
produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources such as wind and solar

power, referred to as green hydrogen.[47] When derived from natural gas by zero

greenhouse emission methane pyrolysis, it is referred to as turquoise hydrogen.[48]

When fossil fuel derived with greenhouse gas emissions, is generally referred to as grey
hydrogen. If most of the carbon dioxide emission is captured, it is referred to as blue

hydrogen.[49] Hydrogen produced from coal may be referred to as brown or black

hydrogen.[50]

Current production methods[edit]

Steam reforming – gray or blue[edit]

Hydrogen is industrially produced from steam reforming (SMR), which uses natural gas.[51]

The energy content of the produced hydrogen is around 74% of the energy content of the

original fuel,[52] as some energy is lost as excess heat during production. In general, steam

reforming emits carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and is known as gray hydrogen. If the
carbon dioxide is captured and stored, the hydrogen produced is known as blue hydrogen.

Electrolysis of water – green, pink or yellow[edit]

Illustrating inputs and outputs of simple electrolysis of water production of hydrogen

Hydrogen can be made via high pressure electrolysis, low pressure electrolysis of water, or a
range of other emerging electrochemical processes such as high temperature electrolysis or

carbon assisted electrolysis.[53] However, current best processes for water electrolysis have

an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%,[54][55][56] so that producing 1 kg of hydrogen

(which has a specific energy of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of
electricity.
In parts of the world, steam methane reforming is between $1–3/kg on average excluding
hydrogen gas pressurization cost. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost

competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel Hydrogen[57] and others, including

an article by the IEA[58] examining the conditions which could lead to a competitive

advantage for electrolysis.

A small part (2% in 2019[59]) is produced by electrolysis using electricity and water,

consuming approximately 50 to 55 kilowatt-hours of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen

produced.[60]

Hydrogen as a byproduct of other chemical processes[edit]

Main article: Mekog

The industrial production of chlorine and caustic soda by electrolysis generates a sizable
amount of Hydrogen as a byproduct. In the port of Antwerp a 1MW demonstration fuel cell
power plant is powered by such byproduct. This unit has been operational since late

2011.[61] The excess hydrogen is often managed with a hydrogen pinch analysis.

Gas generated from coke ovens in steel production is similar to Syngas with 60% hydrogen

by volume.[62] The hydrogen can be extracted from the coke oven gas economically.[63]

Use as an energy carrier[edit]

Hydrogen fuel requires the development of a specific infrastructure for processing, transport and
storage.
Hydrogen can be deployed as a fuel in two distinct ways: in fuel cells which produce

electricity, and via combustion to generate heat.[64] When hydrogen is consumed in fuel

cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour.[64] Combustion of hydrogen can

lead to the thermal formation of harmful nitrogen oxides emissions.[64]

Industry[edit]

In the context of limiting global warming, low-carbon hydrogen (particularly green hydrogen)

is likely to play an important role in decarbonising industry.[65] Hydrogen fuel can produce the

intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus
contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric

arc furnaces for steelmaking.[66] However, it is likely to play a larger role in providing

industrial feedstock for cleaner production of ammonia and organic chemicals.[65] For

example, in steelmaking, hydrogen could function as a clean energy carrier and also as a

low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived coke.[67]

The imperative to use low-carbon hydrogen to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has the
potential to reshape the geography of industrial activities, as locations with appropriate
hydrogen production potential in different regions will interact in new ways with logistics

infrastructure, raw material availability, human and technological capital.[65]

Transport[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen vehicle

Much of the interest in the hydrogen economy concept is focused on the use of fuel cells to
power hydrogen vehicles, particularly large trucks. Hydrogen vehicles produce significantly

less local air pollution than conventional vehicles.[68] By 2050, the energy requirement for

transportation might be between 20% and 30% fulfilled by hydrogen and synthetic

fuels.[69][70][71]
Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in
shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles, through the use of
hydrogen-derived synthetic fuels such as ammonia and methanol, and fuel cell

technology.[72] Hydrogen has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as

a fuel for spacecraft propulsion.

In the light road vehicle segment including passenger cars, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel

cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,[73] compared with 26 million plug-in electric

vehicles.[74] With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and

infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen’s role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier

expectations.[75][76]

In the International Energy Agency’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario (NZE), hydrogen is
forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected
to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused

on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.[77] The NZE foresees hydrogen meeting

approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy

freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).[78]

Although hydrogen can be used in adapted internal combustion engines, fuel cells, being
electrochemical, have an efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more
expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines.

Buildings[edit]

Numerous industry groups (gas networks, gas boiler manufacturers) across the natural gas
supply chain are promoting hydrogen combustion boilers for space and water heating, and

hydrogen appliances for cooking, to reduce energy-related CO2 emissions from residential

and commercial buildings.[79][80][81] The proposition is that current end-users of piped natural

gas can await the conversion of and supply of hydrogen to existing natural gas grids, and
then swap heating and cooking appliances, and that there is no need for consumers to do

anything now.[79][80][81]
A review of 32 studies on the question of hydrogen for heating buildings, independent of
commercial interests, found that the economics and climate benefits of hydrogen for heating
and cooking generally compare very poorly with the deployment of district heating networks,
electrification of heating (principally through heat pumps) and cooking, the use of solar
thermal, waste heat and the installation of energy efficiency measures to reduce energy

demand for heat.[81] Due to inefficiencies in hydrogen production, using blue hydrogen to

replace natural gas for heating could require three times as much methane, while using

green hydrogen would need two to three times as much electricity as heat pumps.[81] Hybrid

heat pumps, which combine the use of an electric heat pump with a hydrogen boiler, may
play a role in residential heating in areas where upgrading networks to meet peak electrical

demand would otherwise be costly.[81]

The widespread use of hydrogen for heating buildings would entail higher energy system
costs, higher heating costs and higher environmental impacts than the alternatives, although

a niche role may be appropriate in specific contexts and geographies.[81] If deployed, using

hydrogen in buildings would drive up the cost of hydrogen for harder-to-decarbonise

applications in industry and transport.[81]

Energy system balancing and storage[edit]

Green hydrogen, from electrolysis of water, has the potential to address the variability of
renewable energy output. Producing green hydrogen can both reduce the need for
renewable power curtailment during periods of high renewables output and be stored

long-term to provide for power generation during periods of low output.[82][83]

Ammonia[edit]

This section needs expansion

with: shipping to Japan and
maybe from Iceland. You can
help by adding to it. (February
2019)
An alternative to gaseous hydrogen as an energy carrier is to bond it with nitrogen from the
air to produce ammonia, which can be easily liquefied, transported, and used (directly or

indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel.[84][85] Among disadvantages of ammonia as an

energy carrier are its high toxicity, extremely low energy efficiency of NH3 production from N2
and H2, and poisoning of PEM Fuel Cells by traces of non-decomposed NH3 after NH3 to N2
conversion.

Bio-SNG[edit]

As of 2019 although technically possible production of syngas from hydrogen and

carbon-dioxide from bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) via the Sabatier

reaction is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available:[86] therefore any

bio-SNG made may be reserved for production of aviation biofuel.[87]

Storage[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen storage

Although molecular hydrogen has very high energy density on a mass basis, partly because
of its low molecular weight, as a gas at ambient conditions it has very low energy density by
volume. If it is to be used as fuel stored on board the vehicle, pure hydrogen gas must be
stored in an energy-dense form to provide sufficient driving range. Because hydrogen is the
smallest molecule, it easily escapes from containers, and leaked hydrogen has a global

warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.[88]

Pressurized hydrogen gas[edit]

See also: Compressed hydrogen

Increasing gas pressure improves the energy density by volume making for smaller
container tanks. The standard material for holding pressurised hydrogen in tube trailers is
steel (there is no hydrogen embrittlement problem with hydrogen gas). Tanks made of
carbon and glass fibres reinforcing plastic as fitted in Toyota Marai and Kenworth trucks are
required to meet safety standards. Few materials are suitable for tanks as hydrogen being a
small molecule tends to diffuse through many polymeric materials. The most common on
board hydrogen storage in today's 2020 vehicles is hydrogen at pressure 700bar = 70MPa.
The energy cost of compressing hydrogen to this pressure is significant.

Pressurized gas pipelines are always made of steel and operate at much lower pressures
than tube trailers.

Liquid hydrogen[edit]

See also: Liquid hydrogen

Alternatively, higher volumetric energy density liquid hydrogen or slush hydrogen may be
used. However, liquid hydrogen is cryogenic and boils at 20.268 K (–252.882 °C or –423.188
°F). Cryogenic storage cuts weight but requires large liquification energies. The liquefaction

process, involving pressurizing and cooling steps, is energy intensive.[89] The liquefied

hydrogen has lower energy density by volume than gasoline by approximately a factor of
four, because of the low density of liquid hydrogen – there are actually more oxidizable
hydrogen atoms in a litre of gasoline (116 grams) than there are in a litre of pure liquid
hydrogen (71 grams). Like any other liquid at cryogenic temperatures, the liquid hydrogen
storage tanks must also be well insulated to minimize boil off.

Japan has a liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage facility at a terminal in Kobe, and was expected

to receive the first shipment of liquid hydrogen via LH2 carrier in 2020.[90] Hydrogen is

liquified by reducing its temperature to -253 °C, similar to liquified natural gas (LNG) which is
stored at -162 °C. A potential efficiency loss of 12.79% can be achieved, or 4.26kWh/kg out

of 33.3kWh/kg.[91]

Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC)[edit]

Main article: Liquid organic hydrogen carriers

Storage as hydride[edit]
Distinct from storing molecular hydrogen, hydrogen can be stored as a chemical hydride or
in some other hydrogen-containing compound. Hydrogen gas is reacted with some other
materials to produce the hydrogen storage material, which can be transported relatively
easily. At the point of use the hydrogen storage material can be made to decompose,
yielding hydrogen gas. As well as the mass and volume density problems associated with
molecular hydrogen storage, current barriers to practical storage schemes stem from the
high pressure and temperature conditions needed for hydride formation and hydrogen
release.

For many potential systems hydriding and dehydriding kinetics and heat management are
also issues that need to be overcome. A French company McPhy Energy is developing the
first industrial product, based on Magnesium Hydrate, already sold to some major clients

such as Iwatani and ENEL.[citation needed] Emergent hydride hydrogen storage technologies

have achieved a compressed volume of less than 1/500.

Adsorption[edit]

A third approach is to adsorb molecular hydrogen on the surface of a solid storage material.
Unlike in the hydrides mentioned above, the hydrogen does not dissociate/recombine upon
charging/discharging the storage system, and hence does not suffer from the kinetic
limitations of many hydride storage systems. Hydrogen densities similar to liquefied
hydrogen can be achieved with appropriate adsorbent materials. Some suggested
adsorbents include activated carbon, nanostructured carbons (including CNTs), MOFs, and
hydrogen clathrate hydrate.

Underground hydrogen storage[edit]

 'Available storage technologies, their capacity and discharge time.' COMMISSION STAFF WORKING
DOCUMENT Energy storage – the role of electricity

Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in caverns, salt domes
and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in

caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties.[92] The storage of large quantities of

liquid hydrogen underground can function as grid energy storage. The round-trip efficiency is
approximately 40% (vs. 75-80% for pumped-hydro (PHES)), and the cost is slightly higher

than pumped hydro.[93]

Another study referenced by a European staff working paper found that for large scale
storage, the cheapest option is hydrogen at €140/MWh for 2,000 hours of storage using an

electrolyser, salt cavern storage and combined-cycle power plant.[94] The European project

Hyunder[95] indicated in 2013 that for the storage of wind and solar energy an additional 85

caverns are required as it cannot be covered by PHES and CAES systems.[96]

A German case study on storage of hydrogen in salt caverns found that if the German power
surplus (7% of total variable renewable generation by 2025 and 20% by 2050) would be
converted to hydrogen and stored underground, these quantities would require some 15
caverns of 500,000 cubic metres each by 2025 and some 60 caverns by 2050 –
corresponding to approximately one third of the number of gas caverns currently operated in

Germany.[97] In the US, Sandia Labs are conducting research into the storage of hydrogen in

depleted oil and gas fields, which could easily absorb large amounts of renewably produced

hydrogen as there are some 2.7 million depleted wells in existence.[98]

Infrastructure[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen infrastructure

 Hydrogen gasification plant for Belinka Perkemija [sl], 2015

The hydrogen infrastructure would consist mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport
and hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen
stations which were not situated near a hydrogen pipeline would get supply via hydrogen
tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank
trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Over 700 miles of hydrogen pipeline currently exist in the United States. Although expensive,
pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances. Hydrogen gas piping
is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to hydrocrack fuels from crude oil.

Hydrogen embrittlement is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen

embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas,

however, is molecular (H2), and there is a very significant energy barrier to splitting it into

atoms.[99]

The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and existing natural

gas pipelines for transport: also international co-operation and shipping.[100]

South Korea and Japan,[101] which as of 2019 lack international electrical interconnectors,

are investing in the hydrogen economy.[102] In March 2020, the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy

Research Field was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production

facility.[103] The site occupies 180,000 m2 (1,900,000 sq ft) of land, much of which is
occupied by a solar array; power from the grid is also used for electrolysis of water to

produce hydrogen fuel.[104]

A key tradeoff: centralized vs. distributed production[edit]

In a future full hydrogen economy, primary energy sources and feedstock would be used to
produce hydrogen gas as stored energy for use in various sectors of the economy.
Producing hydrogen from primary energy sources other than coal and oil would result in
lower production of the greenhouse gases characteristic of the combustion of coal and oil
fossil energy resources. The importance of non-polluting methane pyrolysis of natural gas is
becoming a recognized method for using current natural gas infrastructure investment to
produce hydrogen and no greenhouse gas.

One key feature of a hydrogen economy would be that in mobile applications (primarily
vehicular transport) energy generation and use could be decoupled. The primary energy
source would need no longer travel with the vehicle, as it currently does with hydrocarbon
fuels. Instead of tailpipes creating dispersed emissions, the energy (and pollution) could be
generated from point sources such as large-scale, centralized facilities with improved
efficiency. This would allow the possibility of technologies such as carbon sequestration,
which are otherwise impossible for mobile applications. Alternatively, distributed energy
generation schemes (such as small scale renewable energy sources) could be used,
possibly associated with hydrogen stations.

Aside from the energy generation, hydrogen production could be centralized, distributed or a
mixture of both. While generating hydrogen at centralized primary energy plants promises
higher hydrogen production efficiency, difficulties in high-volume, long range hydrogen
transportation (due to factors such as hydrogen damage and the ease of hydrogen diffusion
through solid materials) makes electrical energy distribution attractive within a hydrogen
economy.

In such a scenario, small regional plants or even local filling stations could generate
hydrogen using energy provided through the electrical distribution grid or methane pyrolysis
of natural gas. While hydrogen generation efficiency is likely to be lower than for centralized
hydrogen generation, losses in hydrogen transport could make such a scheme more efficient
in terms of the primary energy used per kilogram of hydrogen delivered to the end user.

The proper balance between hydrogen distribution, long-distance electrical distribution and
destination converted pyrolysis of natural gas is one of the primary questions that arises
about the hydrogen economy.

Again the dilemmas of production sources and transportation of hydrogen can now be
overcome using on site (home, business, or fuel station) generation of hydrogen from off grid
renewable sources.

Distributed electrolysis[edit]

This section needs to

be updated. Please
help update this article
to reflect recent events
or newly available
information. (February
2019)

Distributed electrolysis would bypass the problems of distributing hydrogen by distributing

electricity instead. It would use existing electrical networks to transport electricity to small,
on-site electrolysers located at filling stations. However, accounting for the energy used to
produce the electricity and transmission losses would reduce the overall efficiency.

Safety[edit]

Main article: Hydrogen safety

Hydrogen has one of the widest explosive/ignition mix range with air of all the gases with few
exceptions such as acetylene, silane, and ethylene oxide, and in terms of minimum
necessary ignition energy and mixture ratios has extremely low requirements for an
explosion to occur. This means that whatever the mix proportion between air and hydrogen,
when ignited in an enclosed space a hydrogen leak will most likely lead to an explosion, not

a mere flame.[105] Systems and procedures to avoid accidents involve considering:

 ● Inerting hydrogen lines
● Systems to quickly purge hydrogen or ventilate an area
● Flaring off hydrogen
● Ignition source management
● Taking into account mechanical integrity issues
● Identifying possible hydrogen gas as a byproduct in certain chemical reactions
● Detecting hydrogen leaks or flames
● Inventory management
● Properly spacing hydrogen and other flammable material
● Specialized pressurized hydrogen containment tanks, in particular with cryogenic
hydrogen
● Other human factors

There are many codes and standards regarding hydrogen safety in storage, transport, and

use. These range from federal regulations,[106] ANSI/AIAA,[107] NFPA,[108] and ISO[109]

standards. The Canadian Hydrogen Safety Program concluded that hydrogen fueling is as

safe as, or safer than, compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling,[110]

Introduction

The production of hydrogen is an appropriate environmental

solution. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It
cannot be destroyed unlike hydrocarbons, and it simply changes
state from water to hydrogen and back to water—during
consumption.

The pollutants emitted by fossil energy systems (e.g. CO, CO

, CnHm, SO

�
, NO

, radioactivity, heavy metals, ashes, etc.) are greater and more

damaging than those that might be produced by a renewable
hydrogen energy system [1]. Worldwide reduction of CO

emission to reduce the risk of climate change (greenhouse effect)

requires a major restructuring of the energy system. The use of
hydrogen as an energy carrier is a long-term option to reduce CO

emissions.

Global utilization of fossil fuels for energy needs is rapidly resulting

in critical environmental problems throughout the world.

In 1992, as a result of the Second World Renewable Energy

Congress held in Reading, The world renewable energy network
(WREN) has been formed. The first author of this paper is the
founder member of WREN. This network is dedicated to promoting
renewable energy throughout the world. The renewable energies are
solar energy, wind power, hydro power, bio energy, hydrogen
energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, energy efficiency,
education menu and others.
Energy, economic and political crises as well as the health of
humans, animals and plant life are all critical concerns. There is an
urgent need to expedite the process of implementing the hydrogen
economy. A worldwide conversion from fossil fuels to hydrogen
would eliminate many problems and their ramifications. The
optimal endpoint for conversion to the hydrogen economy is the
substitution of clean hydrogen for the present fossil fuels. The
production of hydrogen from non polluting sources (such as solar
energy) is the ideal way [2].

Section snippets

The properties of hydrogen

Hydrogen is the simplest element, an atom consisting of only one

proton and one electron. It is also the most plentiful element in the
universe. Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen does not
occur naturally as a gas on the Earth—it is always combined with
other elements. Water, for example, is a combination of hydrogen
and oxygen (H

O). Hydrogen is also found in many organic compounds, notably

the “hydrocarbons” that make up many of our fuels such as
gasoline, natural gas, methanol
Developing sustainable technologies for the 21st
century

The vision is staggering: a society powered almost entirely by

hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe. In this
vision, renewable resources such as biomass, wind, and solar energy
are used to extract hydrogen from water. When the hydrogen is
used as an energy source, it generates no emissions other than
water, which is recycled to make more hydrogen.

Hydrogen and its uses

Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas that accounts for 75% of the

universe mass. Hydrogen is found on Earth only in combination
with

Hydrogen production
Hydrogen is already being produced in huge volumes and is used in
a variety of industries. Current worldwide production is around 500
billion Nm

per year. Most of the hydrogen produced today is consumed

on-site, such as at oil refineries, and is not sold on the market. From
large-scale production, hydrogen costs around $0.70/kg if it is
consumed on-site. When hydrogen is sold on the market, the cost of
liquefying the hydrogen and transporting it to the user adds
considerably to the production

Hydrogen has many unusual characteristics compared with other elements. Some of these interesting and
unusual characteristics include:

• Hydrogen does not exist in its natural form on earth; therefore, it must be manufactured through steam
reforming of natural gas, the gasification of coal, electrolysis, or the reforming/oxidation of other
hydrocarbons or biomass.
• It is the lightest and most abundant element.
• It can burn with oxygen to release large amounts of energy.
• Hydrogen has a high energy content by weight.
• It has a low energy density by volume at standard temperature and atmospheric pressure.
• Like any other gas, the volumetric density can be drastically lowered by storing compressed hydrogen
under pressure, or converting it to liquid hydrogen.
• Hydrogen burns when it makes up 4 to 75% of air by volume.
• Many pollutants are formed when hydrogen is burned in air because of the high nitrogen content of the
air.

Table 1 compares relevant properties of hydrogen, methane, methanol, ethanol, propane, and gasoline—all of
which can be used as fuel for fuel cells.
Table 1. Hydrogen Compared with Other Fuels
Property Hydrogen Methane Methanol Ethanol Propane Gasoline
Molecular Weight (g/mol) 2.016 16.043 32.040 46.063 44.100 ~107.000
3
Density (kg/m at 20°C and 1 atm) 0.08375 0.6682 791 789 1.865 751
Normal Boiling point (°C) -252.8 -161.5 64.5 78.5 -42.1 27 - 225
Flash Point (°C) < -253 -188 11 13 -104 -43
Flammability Limits in Air (Volume %) 4.0 - 75.0 5.0 - 15.0 6.7 - 36.0 3.3 - 19 2.1 - 10.1 1.0 - 7.6
CO2 Production per Energy Unit 0 1.00 1.50 N/A N/A 1.80
Auto-ignition Temperature in Air (°C) 585 540 385 423 490 230 - 480
Higher Heating Value (MJ/kg) 142.0 55.5 22.9 29.8 50.2 47.3
Lower Heating Value (MJ/kg) 120.0 50.0 20.1 27.0 46.3 44.0

Hydrogen is a good choice for a future energy source for many reasons. Some of these reasons include:

• Hydrogen has the potential to provide energy to all parts of the economy: industry, residences,
transportation, and mobile applications.
• Hydrogen can be made from various sources.
• It is completely renewable.
• The most abundant and cleanest precursor for hydrogen is water.
• Hydrogen can be stored in many forms, from gas to liquid to solid.
• It can be stored in various chemicals and substances such as methanol, ethanol, and metal hydrides.
• It can be produced from, and converted to, electricity with high efficiencies.
• It can be transported and stored as safely as any other fuel.
• It can eventually aid in the release of oil-based fuels used for automobiles.
• It is an attractive solution for remote communities that cannot access electricity through the grid.

One of the fundamental attractions of hydrogen is its environmental advantage over fossil fuels, however,
hydrogen is only as clean as the technologies used to produce it. The production of hydrogen can be
pollutant-free if it is produced by one of three methods:

• Through electrolysis using electricity derived solely from renewable energy sources or nuclear power.
• Through steam reforming of fossil fuels combined with new carbon capture and storage technologies.
• Through thermochemical or biological techniques based on renewable biomass.

A major disadvantage of processing hydrocarbons is the pollution and carbon dioxide, which eliminates one of
the main reasons for using hydrogen in the first place. The best low-pollution alternative for creating hydrogen is
a process involving electrolysis of water by electricity. This method creates no carbon dioxide or nitrous or
sulfurous oxides.

Hydrogen is currently produced commercially to make other chemicals such as ammonia and urea, for the
cracking of petrochemicals, and a feedstock for the food, electronics, and metallurgical processing industries.

Safety Aspects of Hydrogen as a Fuel

The reputation of hydrogen as “unsafe” has been unfairly tainted by the Hindenberg incident and the hydrogen
bomb. Although hydrogen has been demonized, investigation into the Hindenberg incident proved that the
aluminum power-filled paint varnish that coated the ship started the fire—not the hydrogen. Since hydrogen is a
small molecule, it has a tendency to escape through small openings more easily than other fuels. Hydrogen can
leak through holes or joints of low pressure fuel lines 1.2 to 2.8 times faster than natural gas. Natural gas has an
energy density three times greater than hydrogen, so a natural gas leak results in a greater energy release than a
hydrogen leak. Since hydrogen is lighter and more diffusive than gasoline, propane, or natural gas, it disperses
much more quickly. If an explosion occurred, hydrogen has the lowest explosive energy per unit of stored fuel.

Liquid hydrogen has a different set of safety issues. If liquid hydrogen spills, it could cause burns. A liquid
hydrogen spill is similar to an oil spill, however, it dissipates much more rapidly. Hydrogen systems are designed
with the correct controls and valves to release hydrogen safely.

When designing hydrogen systems, manufacturers build the following failure modes into their systems:

• Leak prevention through thorough testing of tanks and equipment.

• Installing more than one valve.
• Designing equipment for shocks, vibrations, and wide temperature ranges.
• Adding hydrogen sensors or leak detectors.
• Ignition prevention by eliminating sources of electrical sparks.
• Designing fuel cell supply lines that are physically separated from other equipment.

Hydrogen production
To produce hydrogen, it must be separated from the other elements
in the molecules where it occurs. Hydrogen can be produced from
many different sources in different ways to use as a fuel. The two
most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam-methane
reforming and electrolysis (splitting water with electricity).
Researchers are exploring other hydrogen production methods, or
pathways.
Steam-methane reforming is a widely used method of commercial
hydrogen production
Steam-methane reforming accounts for nearly all commercially
produced hydrogen in the United States. Commercial hydrogen
producers and petroleum refineries use steam-methane reforming
to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4).
In steam-methane reforming, high-temperature steam (1,300°F to
1,800°F) under 3 bar–25 bar pressure (1 bar = 14.5 pounds per
square inch) reacts with methane in the presence of a catalyst to
produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a relatively small amount
of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Industrial facilities and petroleum refineries primarily use natural
gas as the methane source for hydrogen production. Several fuel
cell power plants in the United States treat and use landfill gas
(biogas) as hydrogen source. Biofuels and petroleum fuels are also
potential hydrogen sources.

Electrolysis uses electricity to produce hydrogen

Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water using an
electric current. Electrolysis is commonly used in high school
science classes to demonstrate chemical reactions and hydrogen
production. On a large, commercial scale, the process may be
referred to as power-to-gas, where power is electricity and
hydrogen is gas. Electrolysis itself does not produce any byproducts
or emissions other than hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity for
electrolysis is currently provided by the electric power grid, which is
supplied with a mix of renewable sources, nuclear energy, and
fossil fuels.

Other methods of hydrogen production

Research is underway to develop other ways to produce hydrogen,
including:
● Thermochemical processes to convert biomass into gas or liquids and to
separate the hydrogen
● Photolytic processes that use solar energy to split water into hydrogen and
oxygen
● Biological processes that use microbes, such as bacteria and microalgae,
to produce hydrogen through biological reactions
Hydrogen production is the family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen gas. There are
four main sources for the commercial production of hydrogen: natural gas, oil, coal, and
electrolysis of water; which account for 48%, 30%, 18% and 4% of the world's hydrogen
[1] [2]
production respectively. Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen. As of
2020, the majority of hydrogen (~95%) is produced by steam reforming of natural gas and other
[3][4]
light hydrocarbons, partial oxidation of heavier hydrocarbons, and coal gasification. Other
methods of hydrogen production include biomass gasification and methane pyrolysis. Methane
pyrolysis and water electrolysis can use any source of electricity including renewable energy.
The production of hydrogen plays a key role in any industrialized society, since hydrogen is
[5]
required for many chemical processes. In 2020, roughly 87 million tons of hydrogen was
[6]
produced worldwide for various uses, such as oil refining, in the production of ammonia
through the Haber process, and in the production of methanol through reduction of carbon
monoxide. The global hydrogen generation market was valued at US$155 billion in 2022, and
[7]
expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 9.3% from 2023 to 2030.

Steam methane reforming[edit]

Main article: Steam reforming

Steam methane reforming (SMR) produces hydrogen from natural gas, mostly methane (CH4),
and water. It is the cheapest source of industrial hydrogen, being the source of nearly 50% of the
[8]
world's hydrogen. The process consists of heating the gas to 700–1,100 °C (1,300–2,000 °F) in
the presence of steam over a nickel catalyst. The resulting endothermic reaction forms carbon
[9]
monoxide and molecular hydrogen (H2).
In the water-gas shift reaction, the carbon monoxide reacts with steam to obtain further quantities
of H2. The WGSR also requires a catalyst, typically over iron oxide or other oxides. The
[9]
byproduct is CO2. Depending on the quality of the feedstock (natural gas, naphtha, etc.), one
ton of hydrogen produced will also produce 9 to 12 tons of CO2, a greenhouse gas that may be
[10]
captured.
 Illustrating inputs and outputs of steam reforming of natural gas, a process to produce hydrogen and
CO2 greenhouse gas that may be captured with CCS

For this process, high temperature steam (H2O) reacts with methane (CH4) in an endothermic
[11]
reaction to yield syngas.

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature, exothermic,

water-gas shift reaction, performed at about 360 °C (680 °F):

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to
CO2. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to
drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.

Other fossil fuel methods[edit]

Partial oxidation[edit]
Hydrogen production from natural gas and heavier hydrocarbons is achieved by partial oxidation.
A fuel-air or fuel-oxygen mixture is partially combusted, resulting in a hydrogen- and carbon
monoxide-rich syngas. More hydrogen and carbon dioxide are then obtained from carbon
[9]
monoxide (and water) via the water-gas shift reaction. Carbon dioxide can be co-fed to lower
the hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio.
The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture or fuel-oxygen is
partially combusted in a reformer or partial oxidation reactor. A distinction is made between
thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction
takes the general form:
n m
CnHm + /2 O2 → n CO + /2 H2

Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming compositions C12H24 and C24H12
respectively, are as follows:

C12H24 + 6 O2 → 12 CO + 12 H2

C24H12 + 12 O2 → 24 CO + 6 H2

Plasma reforming[edit]
[12]
The Kværner process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H) is a plasma
reforming method, developed in the 1980s by a Norwegian company of the same name, for the
production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (CnHm). Of the available
energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in
[13]
activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam. CO2 is not produced in the process.
A variation of this process is presented in 2009 using, plasma arc waste disposal technology for
the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a plasma
[14]
converter.

Coal[edit]
For the production of hydrogen from coal, coal gasification is used. The process of coal
gasification uses steam and oxygen to break molecular bonds in coal and form a gaseous
[15]
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide and pollutants may be more easily
[16][17]
removed from gas obtained from coal gasification versus coal combustion. Another method
[18]
for conversion is low-temperature and high-temperature coal carbonization.
Coke oven gas made from pyrolysis (oxygen free heating) of coal has about 60% hydrogen, the
rest being methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen can be separated from other impurities by the pressure-swing
adsorption process. Japanese steel companies have carried out production of hydrogen by this
method.

Petroleum coke[edit]
Petroleum coke can also be converted to hydrogen-rich syngas via coal gasification. The
produced syngas consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and H2S from the sulfur in the
[19]
coke feed. Gasification is an option for producing hydrogen from almost any carbon source.

Depleted oil wells[edit]

Injecting appropriate microbes into depleted oil wells allows them to extract hydrogen from the
remaining, unrecoverable oil. Since the only inputs are the microbes, production costs are low.
The method also produces concentrated CO
[20]
2 that could in principle be captured.

From water[edit]
Main article: Water splitting
Methods to produce hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels involve the process of water splitting,
or splitting the water molecule (H2O) into its components oxygen and hydrogen. When the
source of energy for water splitting is renewable or low-carbon, the hydrogen produced is
sometimes referred to as green hydrogen. The conversion can be accomplished in several ways,
but all methods are currently considered more expensive than fossil-fuel based production
methods.

Electrolysis of water[edit]
Main article: Electrolysis of water
 Illustrating inputs and outputs of electrolysis of water, for production of hydrogen and no greenhouse
gas

Water electrolysis is using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. As of 2020, less
[21]
than 0.1% of hydrogen production comes from water electrolysis. Electrolysis of water is
[22][23]
70–80% efficient (a 20–30% conversion loss) while steam reforming of natural gas has a
[24]
thermal efficiency between 70 and 85%. The electrical efficiency of electrolysis is expected to
[25]
reach 82–86% before 2030, while also maintaining durability as progress in this area
[26]
continues apace.
Water electrolysis can operate at 50–80 °C (120–180 °F), while steam methane reforming
[27]
requires temperatures at 700–1,100 °C (1,300–2,000 °F). The difference between the two
methods is the primary energy used; either electricity (for electrolysis) or natural gas (for steam
methane reforming). Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and
similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the
objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been
[15]
targeted to allow electrolysis.
There are three main types of electrolytic cells, solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs), polymer
[28]
electrolyte membrane cells (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells (AECs). Traditionally, alkaline
electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but
less-efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive
platinum group metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher current
[29]
densities, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough.
SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C (1,500 °F). At these high
temperatures, a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy
(heat), and as such is termed high-temperature electrolysis. The heat energy can be provided
from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat, nuclear power stations or
concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the
hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for
[30][31][32][33]
electrolysis.
[30]
PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C (212 °F). These cells have the
advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying voltage
inputs, which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic
[34]
solar panels. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations of electrolyte (KOH or potassium
carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C (392 °F).

Industrial output and efficiency[edit]

Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by energy consumed per standard
3
volume of hydrogen (MJ/m ), assuming standard temperature and pressure of the H2. The lower
the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100%-efficient electrolyser
[35]
would consume 39.4 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (142 MJ/kg) of hydrogen, 12,749 joules per
3
litre (12.75 MJ/m ). Practical electrolysis typically uses a rotating electrolyser, where centrifugal
[36]
force helps separate gas bubbles from water. Such an electrolyser at 15 bar pressure may
consume 50 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (180 MJ/kg), and a further 15 kilowatt-hours (54 MJ) if
[37]
the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars.
[38]
Conventional alkaline electrolysis has an efficiency of about 70%, however advanced alkaline
[39]
water electrolysers with efficiency of up to 82% are available. Accounting for the use of the
higher heat value (because inefficiency via heat can be redirected back into the system to create
the steam required by the catalyst), average working efficiencies for PEM electrolysis are around
[40]
80%, or 82% using the most modern alkaline electrolysers.
[41]
PEM efficiency is expected to increase to approximately 86% before 2030. Theoretical
[42]
efficiency for PEM electrolysers is predicted up to 94%.

H2 production cost ($-gge untaxed) at varying natural gas prices

[43]
As of 2020, the cost of hydrogen by electrolysis is around $3–8/kg. Considering the industrial
production of hydrogen, and using current best processes for water electrolysis (PEM or alkaline
[44][45][46]
electrolysis) which have an effective electrical efficiency of 70–82%, producing 1 kg of
hydrogen (which has a specific energy of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of
electricity. At an electricity cost of $0.06/kWh, as set out in the Department of Energy hydrogen
[47]
production targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $3/kg.
The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $2.30/kg, requiring an electricity cost of
$0.037/kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many
[48]
regions. The report by IRENA.ORG is an extensive factual report of present-day industrial
hydrogen production consuming about 53 to 70 kWh per kg could go down to about 45 kWh/kg H
[49]
2. The thermodynamic energy required for hydrogen by electrolysis translates to 33 kWh/kg,
which is higher than steam reforming with carbon capture and higher than methane pyrolysis.
One of the advantages of electrolysis over hydrogen from steam methane reforming (SMR) is
that the hydrogen can be produced on-site, meaning that the costly process of delivery via truck
or pipeline is avoided.

Chemically assisted electrolysis[edit]

In addition to reduce the voltage required for electrolysis via the increasing of the temperature of
the electrolysis cell it is also possible to electrochemically consume the oxygen produced in an
[50] [51][52] [53]
electrolyser by introducing a fuel (such as carbon/coal, methanol, ethanol, formic
[54] [54]
acid, glycerol, etc.) into the oxygen side of the reactor. This reduces the required electrical
energy and has the potential to reduce the cost of hydrogen to less than 40~60% with the
[55]
remaining energy provided in this manner.
Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) has the potential to offer a less energy
intensive, cleaner method of using chemical energy in various sources of carbon, such as
low-rank and high sulfur coals, biomass, alcohols and methane (Natural Gas), where pure CO2
[56][57]
produced can be easily sequestered without the need for separation.

Radiolysis[edit]
[58][59]
Nuclear radiation can break water bonds through radiolysis. In the Mponeng gold mine,
South Africa, researchers found bacteria in a naturally occurring high radiation zone. The
bacterial community which was dominated by a new phylotype of Desulfotomaculum, was
[60]
feeding on primarily radiolytically produced hydrogen.

Thermolysis[edit]
Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 °C, but this thermolysis occurs at temperatures
too high for usual process piping and equipment resulting in a rather low commercialization
[61]
potential.

Pyrolysis on biomass[edit]

Pyrolysis can be divided into different types based on the pyrolysis temperature, namely
low-temperature slow pyrolysis, medium-temperature rapid pyrolysis, and high-temperature flash
[62]
pyrolysis. The source energy is mainly solar energy, with help of photosynthetic
microorganisms to decompose water or biomass to produce hydrogen. However, this process
has relatively low hydrogen yields and high operating cost. It is not a feasible method for industry.

Nuclear-assisted thermolysis[edit]

The high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) is one of the most promising CO2-free nuclear
technique to produce hydrogen by splitting water in a large scale. In this method, iodine-sulfur
(IS) thermo-chemical cycle for splitting water and high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE)
were selected as the main processes for nuclear hydrogen production. The S-I cycle follows
[63]
three chemical reactions:

Bunsen reaction: I2+SO2+2H2O=H2SO4+2HI

HI decomposition: 2HI=H2+I2

Sulfuric acid decomposition: H2SO4=SO2+1/2O2+H2O

The hydrogen production rate of HTGR with IS cycle is approximately 0.68 kg/s, and the capital
cost to build a unit of power plant is $100 million.

Thermochemical cycle[edit]
Main article: thermochemical cycle
Thermochemical cycles combine solely heat sources (thermo) with chemical reactions to split
[64]
water into its hydrogen and oxygen components. The term cycle is used because aside from
water, hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds used in these processes are continuously
recycled. If electricity is partially used as an input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is defined
as a hybrid one.
The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a thermochemical cycle processes which generates
hydrogen from water with an efficiency of approximately 50%. The sulfur and iodine used in the
process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. The cycle can be
performed with any source of very high temperatures, approximately 950 °C, such as by
Concentrating solar power systems (CSP) and is regarded as being well suited to the production
[65]
of hydrogen by high-temperature nuclear reactors, and as such, is being studied in the
[66][67][68][69]
High-temperature engineering test reactor in Japan. There are other hybrid cycles
that use both high temperatures and some electricity, such as the Copper–chlorine cycle, it is
classified as a hybrid thermochemical cycle because it uses an electrochemical reaction in one of
[70]
the reaction steps, it operates at 530 °C and has an efficiency of 43 percent.

Ferrosilicon method[edit]
Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for balloons. The chemical
reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon, and water. The generator is small enough to fit a
truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not
[71]
combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use
since World War I. A heavy steel pressure vessel is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon,
closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the
mixture to about 93 °C and starts the reaction; sodium silicate, hydrogen and steam are
[72]
produced.

Photobiological water splitting[edit]

 An algae bioreactor for hydrogen production.

Main article: Biological hydrogen production (Algae)

[73]
Biological hydrogen can be produced in an algae bioreactor. In the late 1990s it was
discovered that if the algae are deprived of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen, i.e.
normal photosynthesis, to the production of hydrogen. It seems that the production is now
economically feasible by surpassing the 7–10 percent energy efficiency (the conversion of
[74]
sunlight into hydrogen) barrier. with a hydrogen production rate of 10–12 ml per liter culture
[75]
per hour.

Photocatalytic water splitting[edit]

Main article: Photocatalytic water splitting
The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the
most interesting ways to achieve clean and renewable energy systems. However, if this process
is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an
[76][77][78]
electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, it can be made more efficient.

Biohydrogen routes[edit]
Biomass and waste streams can in principle be converted into biohydrogen with biomass
[55]
gasification, steam reforming, or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or
[2]
fermentative hydrogen production.
Among hydrogen production methods biological routes are potentially less energy intensive. In
addition, a wide variety of waste and low-value materials such as agricultural biomass as
renewable sources can be utilized to produce hydrogen via biochemical pathways. Nevertheless,
at present hydrogen is produced mainly from fossil fuels, in particular, natural gas which are
non-renewable sources. Hydrogen is not only the cleanest fuel but also widely used in a number
[79]
of industries, especially fertilizer, petrochemical and food ones.
Biochemical routes to hydrogen are classified as dark and photo fermentation processes. In dark
fermentation, carbohydrates are converted to hydrogen by fermentative microorganisms
including strict anaerobe and facultative anaerobic bacteria. A theoretical maximum of 4 mol
[citation needed]
H2/mol glucose can be produced. Sugars are convertable to volatile fatty acids
(VFAs) and alcohols as by-products during this process. Photo fermentative bacteria are able to
generate hydrogen from VFAs. Hence, metabolites formed in dark fermentation can be used as
[79]
feedstock in photo fermentation to enhance the overall yield of hydrogen.

Fermentative hydrogen production[edit]

Main articles: fermentative hydrogen production and dark fermentation
Fermentative hydrogen production converts organic substrates to hydrogen. A diverse group of
bacteria promote this transformation. Photofermentation differs from dark fermentation because it
only proceeds in the presence of light. For example, photo-fermentation with Rhodobacter
[80]
sphaeroides SH2C can be employed to convert some fatty acids into hydrogen.
Fermentative hydrogen production can be done using direct biophotolysis by green algae,
indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria
and dark fermentation by anaerobic fermentative bacteria. For example, studies on hydrogen
production using H. salinarium, an anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a hydrogenase
[81]
donor like E. coli, are reported in literature. Enterobacter aerogenes is another hydrogen
[82]
producer.

Enzymatic hydrogen generation[edit]

[83]
Diverse enzymatic pathways have been designed to generate hydrogen from sugars.

Biocatalysed electrolysis[edit]

A microbial electrolysis cell

Main articles: electrohydrogenesis and microbial fuel cell

Besides dark fermentation, electrohydrogenesis (electrolysis using microbes) is another
possibility. Using microbial fuel cells, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power.
Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with biological hydrogen production, as the
latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly, where
with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell and a
[84]
variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice,
[85]
tomatoes, lupines and algae.
 Nano-galvanic aluminum-based powder developed by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory

Nanogalvanic aluminum alloy powder[edit]

Main article: Aluminum based nanogalvanic alloys
Aluminum alloy powder reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas upon contact with water. It
[86][87]
reportedly generates hydrogen at 100 percent of the theoretical yield. Cost-effective routes
for egenerating the aluminum alloy remain elusive.

CC-HOD[edit]
Main article: CC-HOD
CC-HOD (Catalytic Carbon - Hydrogen On Demand) is a low-temperature process in which
carbon and aluminium are submerged and heated to about 80 °C (176 °F), causing a chemical
reaction which produces hydrogen.

Environmental impact[edit]
As of 2020, most hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, resulting in carbon dioxide
[88]
emissions. Hydrogen produced by this technology has been described as grey hydrogen
when emissions are released to the atmosphere, and blue hydrogen when emissions are
[89]
captured through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Blue hydrogen has been estimated to
have a carbon footprint 20% greater than burning gas or coal for heat and 60% greater when
compared to burning diesel for heat, assuming US up- and mid-stream methane leakage rates
[90]
and production via steam methane reformers (SMR) retrofitted with carbon dioxide capture.
The use of autothermal reformers (ATR) with integrated capture of carbon dioxide allows higher
capture rates at satisfactory energy efficiencies and life cycle assessments have shown lower
[91]
greenhouse gas emissions for such plants compared to SMRs with carbon dioxide capture.
Application of ATR technology with integrated capture of carbon dioxide in Europe has been
assessed to have a lower greenhouse gas footprint than burning natural gas, e.g. for the H21
project with a reported reduction of 68% due to a reduced carbon dioxide intensity of natural gas
[92]
combined with a more suitable reactor type for capture of carbon dioxide.
Hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources is often referred to as green hydrogen. Two
ways of producing hydrogen from renewable energy sources are claimed to be practical. One is
to use power to gas, in which electric power is used to produce hydrogen from electrolysis of
water, and the other is to use landfill gas to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer. Hydrogen
fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable
[93]
fuel. Hydrogen produced from nuclear energy via electrolysis is sometimes viewed as a
subset of green hydrogen, but can also be referred to as pink hydrogen. The Oskarshamn
Nuclear Power Plant made an agreement in January 2022 to supply commercial pink hydrogen
[94]
in the order of kilograms per day.
As of 2020, estimated costs of production are $1–1.80/kg for grey hydrogen and blue
[95] [95]
hydrogen, and $2.50–6.80 for green hydrogen.
94 million tonnes of grey hydrogen are produced globally using fossil fuels as of 2022, primarily
[96][97][98][99]
natural gas, and are therefore a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.
Life cycle assessment or LCA (also known as life cycle analysis) is a methodology for
assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial
product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental
impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's
manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it
[1][2]
(grave).
An LCA study involves a thorough inventory of the energy and materials that are required across
the industry value chain of the product, process or service, and calculates the corresponding
[2]
emissions to the environment. LCA thus assesses cumulative potential environmental impacts.
[2]
The aim is to document and improve the overall environmental profile of the product.
Widely recognized procedures for conducting LCAs are included in the 14000 series of
environmental management standards of the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), in particular, in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. ISO 14040 provides the 'principles and
framework' of the Standard, while ISO 14044 provides an outline of the 'requirements and
guidelines'. Generally, ISO 14040 was written for a managerial audience and ISO 14044 for
[3]
practitioners. As part of the introductory section of ISO 14040, LCA has been defined as the
[4]
following:

LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout a product's life cycle
(i.e., cradle-to-grave) from raw materials acquisition through production, use and disposal. The
general categories of environmental impacts needing consideration include resource use, human
health, and ecological consequences.

Criticisms have been leveled against the LCA approach, both in general and with regard to
specific cases (e.g., in the consistency of the methodology, particularly with regard to system
boundaries, and the susceptibility of particular LCAs to practitioner bias with regard to the
decisions that they seek to inform). Without a formal set of requirements and guidelines, an LCA
can be completed based on a practitioner's views and believed methodologies. In turn, an LCA
completed by 10 different parties could yield 10 different results. The ISO LCA Standard aims to
normalize this; however, the guidelines are not overly restrictive and 10 different answers may
[3]
still be generated.

Definition, synonyms, goals, and purpose[edit]

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is sometimes referred to synonymously as life cycle analysis in the
[5][1][6]
scholarly and agency report literatures. Also, due to the general nature of an LCA study of
examining the life cycle impacts from raw material extraction (cradle) through disposal (grave), it
[4]
is sometimes referred to as "cradle-to-grave analysis".
As stated by the National Risk Management Research Laboratory of the EPA, "LCA is a
technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product,
process, or service, by:
● Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental
releases
● Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and
releases
[2]
● Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision".

Example Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) stages diagram

Hence, it is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a
product's life from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. The results are used to help
decision-makers select products or processes that result in the least impact to the environment
by considering an entire product system and avoiding sub-optimization that could occur if only a
[7]
single process were used.
Therefore, the goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to
products and services by quantifying all inputs and outputs of material flows and assessing how
[8]
these material flows affect the environment. This information is used to improve processes,
support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.
The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the assessment of
raw-material production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal including all intervening
[9]
transportation steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.
Despite attempts to standardize LCA, results from different LCAs are often contradictory,
therefore it is unrealistic to expect these results to be unique and objective. Thus, it should not be
considered as such, but rather as a family of methods attempting to quantify results through a
[10]
different point-of-view. Among these methods are two main types: Attributional LCA and
[11]
Consequential LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to attribute the burdens associated with the
production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process, for an identified temporal
 [12]
period. Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or
a proposed change in a system under study, and thus are oriented to the future and require that
[12]
market and economic implications must be taken into account. In other words, Attributional
LCA "attempts to answer 'how are things (i.e. pollutants, resources, and exchanges among
processes) flowing within the chosen temporal window?', while Consequential LCA attempts to
[7]
answer 'how will flows beyond the immediate system change in response to decisions?"
A third type of LCA, termed "social LCA", is also under development and is a distinct approach to
[13]
that is intended to assess potential social and socio-economic implications and impacts.
Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) is a useful tool for companies to identify and assess
potential social impacts along the lifecycle of a product or service on various stakeholders (for
[14]
example: workers, local communities, consumers). SLCA is framed by the UNEP/SETAC’s
[15]
Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products published in 2009 in Quebec. The tool
builds on the ISO 26000:2010 Guidelines for Social Responsibility and the Global Reporting
[16]
Initiative (GRI) Guidelines.
The limitations of LCA to focus solely on the ecological aspects of sustainability, and not the
economical or social aspects, distinguishes it from product line analysis (PLA) and similar
methods. This limitation was made deliberately to avoid method overload but recognizes these
[4]
factors should not be ignored when making product decisions.
Some widely recognized procedures for LCA are included in the ISO 14000 series of
[17][page
environmental management standards, in particular, ISO 14040 and 14044.
needed][18][page needed][19]
Greenhouse gas (GHG) product life cycle assessments can also comply
with specifications such as Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 and the GHG Protocol
[20][21]
Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard.

Life cycle analysis and carbon accounting for greenhouse gas emissions
Main ISO phases of LCA[edit]
According to standards in the ISO 14040 and 14044, an LCA is carried out in four distinct
[4][17][page needed][18][page needed]
phases, as illustrated in the figure shown at the above right (at
opening of the article). The phases are often interdependent, in that the results of one phase will
inform how other phases are completed. Therefore, none of the stages should be considered
[3]
finalized until the entire study is complete.

Goal and Scope[edit]

The ISO LCA Standard requires a series of parameters to be quantitatively and qualitatively
expressed, which are occasionally referred to as study design parameters (SPDs). The two main
SPDs for an LCA are the Goal and Scope, both which must be explicitly stated. It is
recommended that a study uses the keywords represented in the Standard when documenting
these details (e.g., "The goal of the study is...") to make sure there is no confusion and ensure
[3]
the study is being interpreted for its intended use.
Generally, an LCA study begins with an explicit statement of the goal, which sets out the context
of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. Per ISO
guidelines, the goal must unambiguously state the following items:
1. The intended application
2. Reasons for carrying out the study
3. The audience
[3][22]
4. Whether the results will be used in a comparative assertion released publicly
The goal should also be defined with the commissioner for the study, and it is recommended a
[22]
detailed description for why the study is being carried out is acquired from the commissioner.
Following the goal, the scope must be defined by outlining the qualitative and quantitative
information included in the study. Unlike the goal, which may only include a few sentences, the
[3]
scope often requires multiple pages. It is set to describe the detail and depth of the study and
[22]
demonstrate that the goal can be achieved within the stated limitations. Under the ISO LCA
[23]
Standard guidelines, the scope of the study should outline the following:
● Product System, which is a collection of processes (activities that transform inputs
to outputs) that are needed to perform a specified function and are within the system
boundary of the study. It is representative of all the processes in the life cycle of a
[3][22]
product or process.
● Functional Unit, which defines precisely what is being studied, quantifies the service
delivered by the system, provides a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be
related, and provides a basis for comparing/analyzing alternative goods or
[24]
services. The functional unit is a very important component of LCA and needs to
[22]
be clearly defined. It is used as a basis for selecting one or more product systems
that can provide the function. Therefore, the functional unit enables different systems
to be treated as functionally equivalent. The defined functional unit should be
quantifiable, include units, consider temporal coverage, and not contain product
[3]
system inputs and outputs (e.g., kg CO2 emissions). Another way to look at it is by
considering the following questions:
 1. What?
2. How much?
3. For how long / how many times?
4. Where?
[11]
5. How well?
● Reference Flow, which is the amount of product or energy that is needed to realize
[22][11]
the functional unit. Typically, the reference flow is different qualitatively and
quantitatively for different products or systems across the same reference flow;
[11]
however, there are instances where they can be the same.
● System Boundary, which delimits which processes should be included in the
analysis of a product system, including whether the system produces any
[25]
co-products that must be accounted for by system expansion or allocation. The
[3]
system boundary should be in accordance with the stated goal of the study.
[22]
● Assumptions and Limitations, which includes any assumptions or decisions
made throughout the study that may influence the final results. It is important these
are made transmitted as the omittance may result in misinterpretation of the results.
Additional assumptions and limitations necessary to accomplish the project are often
[7]
made throughout the project and should recorded as necessary.
● Data Quality Requirements, which specify the kinds of data that will be included
[26]
and what restrictions. According to ISO 14044, the following data quality
considerations should be documented in the scope:
1. Temporal Coverage
2. Geographical Coverage
3. Technological Coverage
4. Precision, completeness, and representativeness of the data
5. Consistency and reproducibility of the methods used in the study
6. Sources of Data
[22]
7. Uncertainty of information and any recognized data gaps
● Allocation Procedure, which is used to partition the inputs and outputs of a product
[22]
and is necessary for processes that produce multiple products, or co-products.
[11]
This is also known as multifunctionality of a product system. ISO 14044 presents a
hierarchy of solutions to deal with multifunctionality issues, as the choice of allocation
[27]
method for co-products can significantly impact results of an LCA. The hierarchy
methods are as follows:
1. Avoid Allocation by Sub-Division - this method attempts to
disaggregate the unit process into smaller sub-processes in order to
separate the production of the product from the production of the
[11][28]
co-product.
2. Avoid Allocation through System Expansion (or substitution) - this
method attempts to expand the process of the co-product with the
most likely way of providing the secondary function of the determining
product (or reference product). In other words, by expanding the
system of the co-product in the most likely alternative way of
producing the co-product independently (System 2). The impacts
resulting from the alternative way of producing the co-product (System
 2) are then subtracted from the determining product to isolate the
[11]
impacts in System 1.
3. Allocation (or partition) based on Physical Relationship - this method
attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them based on
physical relationships between the products (e.g., mass, energy-use,
[11][28]
etc.).
4. Allocation (or partition) based on Other Relationship (non-physical) -
this method attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them
[11][28]
based on non-physical relationships (e.g., economic value).
● Impact Assessment, which includes an outline of the impact categories identified
under interest for the study, and the selected methodology used to calculate the
respective impacts. Specifically, life cycle inventory data is translated into
[11][28]
environmental impact scores, which might include such categories as human
[26]
toxicity, smog, global warming, and eutrophication. As part of the scope, only an
overview needs to be provided, as the main analysis on the impact categories is
discussed in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of the study.
● Documentation of Data, which is the explicit documentation of the inputs/outputs
(individual flows) used within the study. This is necessary as most analyses do not
consider all inputs and outputs of a product system, so this provides the audience
with a transparent representation of the selected data. It also provides transparency
[28]
for why the system boundary, product system, functional unit, etc. was chosen.

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)[edit]

An example of a life cycle inventory (LCI) diagram

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature
[29]
(ecosphere) for a product system. It is the process of quantifying raw material and energy
requirements, atmospheric emissions, land emissions, water emissions, resource uses, and
[30]
other releases over the life cycle of a product or process. In other words, it is the aggregation
of all elementary flows related to each unit process within a product system.
To develop the inventory, it is often recommended to start with a flow model of the technical
[30] [31]
system using data on inputs and outputs of the product system. The flow model is typically
illustrated with a flow diagram that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the
[31]
relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. Generally,
[30]
the more detailed and complex the flow diagram, the more accurate the study and results.
The input and output data needed for the construction of the model is collected for all activities
within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the
[31]
technosphere).
According to ISO 14044, an LCI should be documented using the following steps:
1. Preparation of data collection based on goal and scope
2. Data Collection
3. Data Validation (even if using another work's data)
4. Data Allocation (if needed)
5. Relating Data to the Unit Process
6. Relating Data to the Functional Unit
[32][33]
7. Data Aggregation
As referenced in the ISO 14044 standard, the data must be related to the functional unit, as well
as the goal and scope. However, since the LCA stages are iterative in nature, the data collection
[34]
phase may cause the goal or scope to change. Conversely, a change in the goal or scope
during the course of the study may cause additional collection of data or removal or previously
[32]
collected data in the LCI.
The output of an LCI is a compiled inventory of elementary flows from all of the processes in the
studied product system(s). The data is typically detailed in charts and requires a structured
[35]
approach due to its complex nature.
When collecting the data for each process within the system boundary, the ISO LCA standard
requires the study to measure or estimate the data in order to quantitatively represent each
process in the product system. Ideally, when collecting data, a practitioner should aim to collect
data from primary sources (e.g., measuring inputs and outputs of a process on-site or other
[32]
physical means). Questionnaire are frequently used to collect data on-site and can even be
issued to the respective manufacturer or company to complete. Items on the questionnaire to be
recorded may include:
1. Product for Data Collection
2. Data Collector and Date
3. Period of Data Collection
4. Detailed Explanation of the Process
5. Inputs (raw materials, ancillary materials, energy, transportation)
6. Outputs (emissions to air, water, and land)
[36]
7. Quantity and Quality of each input and output
Oftentimes, the collection of primary data may be difficult and deemed proprietary or confidential
[37]
by the owner. An alternative to primary data is secondary data, which is data that comes from
LCA databases, literature sources, and other past studies. With secondary sources, it is often
you find data that is similar to a process but not exact (e.g., data from a different country, slightly
[38]
different process, similar but different machine, etc.). As such, it is important to explicitly
document the differences in such data. However, secondary data is not always inferior to primary
data. For example, referencing another work's data in which the author used very accurate
[32]
primary data. Along with primary data, secondary data should document the source, reliability,
and temporal, geographical, and technological representativeness.
When identifying the inputs and outputs to document for each unit process within the product
system of an LCI, a practitioner may come across the instance where a process has multiple
input streams or generate multiple output streams. In such case, the practitioner should allocate
 [30][32][36]
the flows based on the "Allocation Procedure" outlined in the previous "Goal and Scope"
section of this article.
The technosphere is more simply defined as the human-made world, and considered by
geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a
[39]
practical sense, the primary goal is salvage. For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply
chain products) are those that have been produced by humans, including products such as
[40]
forestry, materials, and energy flows. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning
[41]
inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking
the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own
previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that
[42]
can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken
[32]
to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.
LCI methods include "process-based LCAs", economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA), and hybrid
[35][32]
approaches. Process-based LCA is a bottom-up LCI approach the constructs an LCI using
knowledge about industrial processes within the life cycle of a product, and the physical flows
[43]
connecting them. EIOLCA is a top-down approach to LCI and uses information on elementary
[44]
flows associated with one unit of economic activity across different sectors. This information is
typically pulled from government agency national statistics tracking trade and services between
[35] [45]
sectors. Hybrid LCA is a combination of process-based LCA and EIOLCA.
The quality of LCI data is typically evaluated with the use of a pedigree matrix. Different pedigree
matrices are available, but all contain a number of data quality indicators and a set of qualitative
[46][47][48]
criteria per indicator. There is another hybrid approach integrates the widely used,
semi-quantitative approach that uses a pedigree matrix, into a qualitative analysis to better
[49]
illustrate the quality of LCI data for non-technical audiences, in particular policymakers.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)[edit]

Life Cycle Inventory analysis is followed by a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). This phase of
LCA is aimed at evaluating the potential environmental and human health impacts resulting from
the elementary flows determined in the LCI. The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards require the
[50][51][52]
following mandatory steps for completing an LCIA:
Mandatory
● Selection of impaction categories, category indicators, and characterization models.
The ISO Standard requires that a study selects multiple impacts that encompass "a
comprehensive set of environmental issues". The impacts should be relevant to the
geographical region of the study and justification for each chosen impact should be
[51]
discussed. Often times in practice, this is completed by choosing an already
[50][53]
existing LCIA method (e.g., TRACI, ReCiPe, AWARE, etc.).
● Classification of inventory results. In this step, the LCI results are assigned to the
chosen impact categories based on their known environmental effects. In practice,
[50]
this is often completed using LCI databases or LCA software. Common impact
 categories include Global Warming, Ozone Depletion, Acidification, Human Toxicity,
[54]
etc.
● Characterization, which quantitatively transforms the LCI results within each impact
category via "characterization factors" (also referred to as equivalency factors) to
[51]
create "impact category indicators." In other words, this step is aimed at
[50]
answering "how much does each result contribute to the impact category?" A main
purpose of this step is to convert all classified flows for an impact into common units
for comparison. For example, for Global Warming Potential, the unit is generally
defined as CO2-equiv or CO2-e (CO2 equivalents) where CO2 is given a value of 1
[51]
and all other units are converted respective to their related impact.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis, as it is the last compulsory stage
[18][page needed][51]
according to ISO 14044. However, the ISO Standard provides the following
optional steps to be taken in addition to the aforementioned mandatory steps:
Optional
● Normalization of results. This step aims to answer "Is that a lot?" by expressing the
[50]
LCIA results in respect to a chosen reference system. A separate reference value
is often chosen for each impact category, and the rationale for the step is to provide
[51]
temporal and spatial perspective and to help validate the LCIA results. Standard
references are typical impacts per impact category per: geographical zone, inhabitant
of geographical zone (per person), industrial sector, or another product system or
[50]
baseline reference scenario.
● Grouping of LCIA results. This step is accomplished by sorting or ranking the LCIA
results (either characterized or normalized depending on the prior steps chosen) into
[50][51]
a single group or several groups as defined within the goal and scope.
However, grouping is subjective and may be inconsistent across studies.
● Weighting of impact categories. This step aims to determine the significance of each
category and how important it is relative to the others. It allows studies to aggregate
[50]
impact scores into a single indicator for comparison. Weighting is highly subjective
[51]
and as it is often decided based on the interested parties' ethics. There are three
main categories of weighting methods: the panel method, monetization method, and
[54]
target method. ISO 14044 generally advises against weighting, stating that
"weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative
[18][page needed]
assertions intended to be disclosed to the public". If a study decides to
weight results, then the weighted results should always be reported together with the
[35]
non-weighted results for transparency.
Life cycle impacts can also be categorized under the several phases of the development,
production, use, and disposal of a product. Broadly speaking, these impacts can be divided into
first impacts, use impacts, and end of life impacts. First impacts include extraction of raw
materials, manufacturing (conversion of raw materials into a product), transportation of the
product to a market or site, construction/installation, and the beginning of the use or
[55][56]
occupancy. Use impacts include physical impacts of operating the product or facility (such
as energy, water, etc.), and any maintenance, renovation, or repairs that are required to continue
 [57][58]
to use the product or facility. End of life impacts include demolition and processing of waste
[59]
or recyclable materials.

Interpretation[edit]
Life cycle interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate
information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment.
The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the
interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and
[17][60]
recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14043, the interpretation should include
the following:
● Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of
an LCA
● Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks
[60]
● Conclusions, limitations and recommendations
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the
final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the
results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best
[61]
choice". Interpretation begins with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring
they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that
contribute significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data
elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions
and recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the
[62][60]
results were developed.
Specifically, as voiced by M.A. Curran, the goal of the LCA interpretation phase is to identify the
alternative that has the least cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air
[63]
resources.

LCA uses[edit]
LCA was primarily used as a comparison tool, providing informative information on the
[64]
environmental impacts of a product and comparing it to available alternatives. Its potential
applications expanded to include marketing, product design, product development, strategic
[65]
planning, consumer education, ecolabeling and government policy.
ISO specifies three types of classification in regard to standards and environmental labels:
● Type I environmental labelling requires a third-party certification process to verify a
products compliance against a set of criteria, according to ISO 14024.
● Type II environmental labels are self-declared environmental claims, according to
ISO 14021.
● Type III environmental declaration, also known as environmental product declaration
(EPD), uses LCA as a tool to report the environmental performance of a product,
[66]
while conforming to the ISO standards 14040 and 14044.
EPDs provide a level of transparency that is being increasingly demanded through policies and
standards around the world. They are used in the built environment as a tool for experts in the
industry to compose whole building life cycle assessments more easily, as the environmental
[67]
impact of individual products are known.

Data analysis[edit]
[68]
A life cycle analysis is only as accurate and valid as is its basis set of data. There are two
[69]
fundamental types of LCA data–unit process data, and environmental input-output (EIO) data.
A unit process data collects data around a single industrial activity and its product(s), including
resources used from the environment and other industries, as well as its generated emissions
[70] [71]
throughout its life cycle. EIO data are based on national economic input-output data.
In 2001, ISO published a technical specification on data documentation, describing the format for
[72]
life cycle inventory data (ISO 14048). The format includes three areas: process, modeling and
[73]
validation, and administrative information.
When comparing LCAs, the data used in each LCA should be of equivalent quality, since no just
comparison can be done if one product has a much higher availability of accurate and valid data,
[74]
as compared to another product which has lower availability of such data.
Moreover, time horizon is a sensitive parameter and was shown to introduce inadvertent bias by
providing one perspective on the outcome of LCA, when comparing the toxicity potential between
[75]
petrochemicals and biopolymers for instance. Therefore, conducting sensitivity analysis in
LCA are important to determine which parameters considerably impact the results, and can also
[76]
be used to identify which parameters cause uncertainties.
[77] [78]
Data sources used in LCAs are typically large databases. Common data sources include:
● soca
● EuGeos' 15804-IA
● NEEDS
● ecoinvent
● PSILCA
● ESU World Food
● GaBi
● ELCD
● LC-Inventories.ch
● Social Hotspots
● ProBas
● bioenergiedat
● Agribalyse
● USDA
● Ökobaudat
● Agri-footprint
[79]
● Comprehensive Environmental Data Archive (CEDA)
As noted above, the inventory in the LCA usually considers a number of stages including
[1][2]
materials extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal.
When an LCA is done on a product across all stages, the stage with the highest environmental
[80]
impact can be determined and altered. For example, woolen-garment was evaluated on its
environmental impacts during its production, use and end-of-life, and identified the contribution of
fossil fuel energy to be dominated by wool processing and GHG emissions to be dominated by
[81]
wool production. However, the most influential factor was the number of garment wear and
length of garment lifetime, indicating that the consumer has the largest influence on this products'
[81]
overall environmental impact.

Variants[edit]

Cradle-to-grave or life cycle assessment[edit]

Cradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle'), to
[82]
manufacturing, usage, and maintenance, all the way through to its disposal phase ('grave').
For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production cellulose
(fiberised paper) insulation, then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40
years, saving 2,000 times the fossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the
cellulose fibers are replaced and the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs
[83]
and outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.

Cradle-to-gate[edit]
Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to
the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase and disposal
phase of the product are omitted in this case. Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the
[84]
basis for environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-business EPDs. One
of the significant uses of the cradle-to-gate approach compiles the life cycle inventory (LCI) using
cradle-to-gate. This allows the LCA to collect all of the impacts leading up to resources being
purchased by the facility. They can then add the steps involved in their transport to plant and
manufacture process to more easily produce their own cradle-to-gate values for their
[85]
products.

Cradle-to-cradle or closed loop production[edit]

See also: Cradle to Cradle Design
Cradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the end-of-life disposal
step for the product is a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the environmental
impact of products by employing sustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and
[86][87]
aims to incorporate social responsibility into product development. From the recycling
process originate new, identical products (e.g., asphalt pavement from discarded asphalt
pavement, glass bottles from collected glass bottles), or different products (e.g., glass wool
[88]
insulation from collected glass bottles).
Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems presents considerable
challenges for LCA. Various methods, such as the avoided burden approach have been
[89]
proposed to deal with the issues involved.
Gate-to-gate[edit]
Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added process in the entire production
chain. Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their appropriate production chain to
[90]
form a complete cradle-to-gate evaluation.

Well-to-wheel[edit]
Well-to-wheel (WtW) is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is
often broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel"
or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel". The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel
production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the "upstream"
stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the
"downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy
consumption, or the energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine vessels,
aircraft and motor vehicles, including their carbon footprint, and the fuels used in each of these
[91][92][93][94]
transport modes. WtW analysis is useful for reflecting the different efficiencies and
emissions of energy technologies and fuels at both the upstream and downstream stages, giving
[95]
a more complete picture of real emissions.
The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the Argonne National
Laboratory. The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation
(GREET) model was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and vehicle technologies.
The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel evaluation while a traditional
cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts from the vehicle itself. The model
reports energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and six additional pollutants: volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size
smaller than 10 micrometer (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometer
[71]
(PM2.5), and sulfur oxides (SOx).
Quantitative values of greenhouse gas emissions calculated with the WTW or with the LCA
method can differ, since the LCA is considering more emission sources. For example, while
assessing the GHG emissions of a battery electric vehicle in comparison with a conventional
internal combustion engine vehicle, the WTW (accounting only the GHG for manufacturing the
[96]
fuels) concludes that an electric vehicle can save around 50–60% of GHG. On the other hand,
using a hybrid LCA-WTW method, concludes that GHG emission savings are 10-13% lower than
the WTW results, as the GHG due to the manufacturing and the end of life of the battery are also
[97]
considered.

Economic input–output life cycle assessment[edit]

Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much
environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much each
[98]
sector purchases from other sectors. Such analysis can account for long chains (for example,
building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building
those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process
LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of
the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not suitable for
evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally, the translation of economic
[99]
quantities into environmental impacts is not validated.

Ecologically based LCA[edit]

While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA,
the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a
guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts
on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems. Developed by Ohio State University
Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating
and supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach
services are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural
[100]
services.

Exergy-based LCA[edit]
Exergy of a system is the maximum useful work possible during a process that brings the system
[101][102] [103]
into equilibrium with a heat reservoir. Wall clearly states the relation between exergy
[104] [105] [106]
analysis and resource accounting. This intuition confirmed by DeWulf and Sciubba
[107]
lead to Exergo-economic accounting and to methods specifically dedicated to LCA such as
[108]
Exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS). The concept of material input per unit of
service (MIPS) is quantified in terms of the second law of thermodynamics, allowing the
calculation of both resource input and service output in exergy terms. This exergetic material
input per unit of service (EMIPS) has been elaborated for transport technology. The service not
only takes into account the total mass to be transported and the total distance, but also the mass
[108]
per single transport and the delivery time.

Life cycle energy analysis[edit]

Main article: Energy Return on Energy Invested
Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product are
accounted for, not only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs
needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the manufacturing
[109] [110]
process. With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.

Energy production[edit]
Further information: Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves,
such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy
content is the energy content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and
conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing
[111]
solar cells requires more energy than can be recovered in using the solar cell. Although these
results were true when solar cells were first manufactured, their efficiency increased greatly over
 [112]
the years. Currently, energy payback time of photovoltaic solar panels range from a few
[113][114]
months to several years. Module recycling could further reduce the energy payback time
[115]
to around one month. Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is energy
cannibalism. Energy cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire
energy-intensive industry creates a need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of
existing power plants. Thus, during rapid growth, the industry as a whole produces no energy
because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been
undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number
[116][117]
of renewable technologies.

Energy recovery[edit]
Further information: Energy recovery
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can
be harnessed and used for electricity production. This provides a low-impact energy source,
[118]
especially when compared with coal and natural gas. While incineration produces more
greenhouse gas emissions than landfills, the waste plants are well-fitted with regulated pollution
control equipment to minimize this negative impact. A study comparing energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions from landfills (without energy recovery) against incineration (with
energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is
[119]
recovered for electricity production.

Criticism[edit]
Energy efficiency is arguably only one consideration in deciding which alternative process to
employ, and should not be elevated as the only criterion for determining environmental
[120]
acceptability. For example, a simple energy analysis does not take into account the
[121]
renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste products. Incorporating "dynamic LCAs",
e.g., with regard to renewable energy technologies—which use sensitivity analyses to project
future improvements in renewable systems and their share of the power grid—may help mitigate
[122][123]
this criticism.
In recent years, the literature on life cycle assessment of energy technology has begun to reflect
the interactions between the current electrical grid and future energy technology. Some papers
[124][125][126]
have focused on energy life cycle, while others have focused on carbon dioxide
[127]
(CO2) and other greenhouse gases. The essential critique given by these sources is that
when considering energy technology, the growing nature of the power grid must be taken into
consideration. If this is not done, a given class energy technology may emit more CO2 over its
lifetime than it initially thought it would mitigate, with this most well documented in wind energy's
case.
A problem that arises when using the energy analysis method is that different energy
forms—heat, electricity, chemical energy etc.—have inconsistent functional units, different
[128]
quality, and different values. This is due to the fact that the first law of thermodynamics
[129]
measures the change in internal energy, whereas the second law measures entropy
 [130]
increase. Approaches such as cost analysis or exergy may be used as the metric for LCA,
[131]
instead of energy.

LCA dataset creation[edit]

There are structured systematic datasets of and for LCAs.
A 2022 dataset provided standardized calculated detailed environmental impacts of >57,000 food
[132][133]
products in supermarkets, potentially e.g., informing consumers or policy. There also is
[134]
at least one crowdsourced database for collecting LCA data for food products.
Datasets can also consist of options, activities, or approaches, rather than of products – for
[135]
example one dataset assesses PET bottle waste management options in Bauru, Brazil.
There are also LCA databases about buildings – complex products – which a 2014 study
[136]
compared.

LCA dataset platforms[edit]

There are some initiatives to develop, integrate, populate, standardize, quality control, combine
[137][138]
and maintain such datasets or LCAs – for example:
● The goal of the LCA Digital Commons Project of the U.S. National Agricultural Library
is "to develop a database and tool set intended to provide data for use in LCAs of
[139]
food, biofuels, and a variety of other bioproducts".
● The Global LCA Data Access network (GLAD) by the UN's Life Cycle Initiative is a
"platform which allows to search, convert and download datasets from different life
[140]
cycle assessment dataset providers".
● The BONSAI project "aims to build a shared resource where the community can
contribute to data generation, validation, and management decisions" for "product
footprinting" with its first goal being "to produce an open dataset and an open source
[141]
toolchain capable of supporting LCA calculations". With product footprints they
[142]
refer to the goal of "reliable, unbiased sustainability information on products".

Dataset optimization[edit]
Datasets that are suboptimal in accuracy or have gaps can be, temporarily until the complete
data is available or permanently, be patched or optimized by various methods such as
mechanisms for "selection of a dataset that represents the missing dataset that leads in most
cases to a much better approximation of environmental impacts than a dataset selected by
[143] [144][133]
default or by geographical proximity" or machine learning.

Integration in systems and systems theory[edit]

Life-cycle assessments can be integrated as routine processes of systems, as input for modeled
[145]
future socio-economic pathways, or, more broadly, into a larger context (such as qualitative
scenarios).
For example, a study estimated the environmental benefits of microbial protein or harm of beef
within a future socio-economic pathway, showing substantial deforestation reduction (56%) and
climate change mitigation if only 20% of per-capita beef was replaced by microbial protein by
[146]
2050.
Life-cycle assessments, including as product/technology analyses, can also be integrated in
analyses of potentials, barriers and methods to shift or regulate consumption or production.
The life-cycle perspective also allows considering losses and lifetimes of rare goods and services
in the economy. For example, the usespans of, often scarce, tech-critical metals were found to
[147]
be short as of 2022. Such data could be combined with conventional life-cycle analyses, e.g.,
to enable life-cycle material/labor cost analyses and long-term economic viability or sustainable
[148]
design. One study suggests that in LCAs, resource availability is, as of 2013, "evaluated by
[149]
means of models based on depletion time, surplus energy, etc."
Broadly, various types of life-cycle assessments (or commissioning such) could be used in
[150][145][151]
various ways in various types of societal decision-making, especially because
financial markets of the economy typically do not consider life cycle impacts or induced societal
[152]
problems in the future and present—the "externalities" to the contemporary economy.

Critiques[edit]
Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable aspects of quantifiable
[153]
systems. Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model.
[154]
Rigid system boundaries make accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is
sometimes referred to as the boundary critique to systems thinking. The accuracy and availability
of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be
[155]
based on averages, unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results. This is especially the
[156]
case for the use and end of life phases in the LCA. Additionally, social implications of
products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life cycle analysis is often used to
determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing system
boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily
be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in
[157]
another study based on varying parameters and different available data. There are
guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for
the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it
[158][159]
is typically used.
[160]
An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products found a lack of
consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the product
[161]
lifecycle. A wide variety of methods and assumptions were used, leading to different and
potentially contrary conclusions—particularly with regard to carbon sequestration and methane
[162]
generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest growth and product use.
Moreover, the fidelity of LCAs can vary substantially as various data may not be incorporated,
especially in early versions: for example, LCAs that do not consider regional emission
[163]
information can under-estimate the life cycle environmental impact.
The Life Cycle Assessment, or LCA, is a measurement of a product's
impact throughout its life cycle. While initially an energy analysis, this
tool has evolved to cover the environmental and social impact of
1
products.

Early research on the LCA began in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These
studies looked at energy requirements amidst growing concern for
resource and energy efficiency, pollution control, and waste. In the 90s,
scientists around the world began coordinating activities surrounding these
concerns. This resulted in complementary methods and procedures from
both the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)
and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). These
programs made way for the LCA to be adopted into modern policy and
1
legislation, not just within individual companies but across the world.

A Product's Life Cycle

There are several ways to measure the life cycle of a product. The most
basic of assessments will account for energy input and output and
environmental impact at each stage. The LCA begins with the extraction
of its raw materials and ends with a product's disposal or reuse. In general,
a product's life cycle can be broken down into four main parts: raw
material extraction, production, use, and end of life.

Raw Material Extraction

Where raw materials are coming from and how they are extracted largely
contribute to the state of a product's life cycle. This part in the cycle
includes the collection, creation, or acquisition of materials from the
2
environment or other means. Whether it is a crop, minerals, or fossil
fuels, this would entail the resources and energy required to grow and
harvest it or extract it from the earth. Also included would be the impact
on the surrounding ecosystems.

Production
This stage is a multi-step process, which includes the processing of the raw
materials, manufacturing and assembly of the product, packaging, and
3
transportation. When an assessment is ended at this point, it's called
cradle-to-gate—a method more common in business to business
4
assessments, where the use phase is bypassed completely.

Consumer Use

How a consumer will use the product can be an important determinant in

the life cycle. Though it is believed that this phase is the most important in
terms of impact, consumer behavior has been one of the least studied areas
5
within the general field of life cycle analysis. For instance, more water
will be used during the time a consumer has a shirt than the water used to
produce the shirt. This lends to the argument that this portion of a
product's life cycle is a significant element of the assessment.

End of Life

The end-of-life stage of the assessment is important when acknowledging

6
the effects of waste on human health and the environment. The focus on
the end-of-life stage is also responsible for assessments such as
cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-cradle. Cradle-to-grave indicates an object
that is made and then disposed of when no longer used. It is this method
that creates waste. In a cradle-to-cradle model, the product is able to be
reused in some fashion eliminating waste. While cradle-to-cradle models
aren't typical of the LCA, it's being considered more as sustainability is
7
becoming increasingly integrated with the assessment.

The Phases of Life Cycle Assesment

There are four phases or steps of the LCA: goal and scope; inventory
analysis of extractions and emissions; life cycle impact assessment; and
interpretation. Each of these phases is part of a standard created by ISO to
provide a strategic method to assess the life cycle.
Goal and Scope

Though it can be modified based on subsequent data, the goal and scope
phase is considered particularly important as it defines the exact approach
8
taken in the assessment. Procedures for this phase are loosely defined by
the ISO to allow for variability. A few things to consider in this phase are
performance, aesthetics, and the cost of the product. Together, these make
9
up the functional unit. Also assessed would be system boundaries,
exclusion of life cycle stages or inputs, and the selection of impact
indicators and characterization factors.

Inventory Analysis

This is the phase where input/output data with regard to the system or
product is gathered. This will included the necessary information to meet
the goals defined in the goal and scope phase. This has been spouted as the
10
most straight forward portion of the LCA. It is also one of the more time
consuming. Because of this, a number of databases have been developed to
provided resources to compile the needed data. One example, the U.S. Life
Cycle Inventory (USLCI) Database, provides "individual gate-to-gate,
cradle-to-gate, and cradle-to-grave accounting of the energy and material
flows into and out of the environment that are associated with producing a
11
material, component, or assembly in the U.S."

Impact Assessment

The Impact Assessment of the LCA adds to the data collected in the
inventory analysis to better assess the possible environmental impact of a
product. This step will involve choosing relevant impact categories,
putting data from the LCI into the categories, and modeling these impacts.
In addition, some studies may want to sort, rank, and weight the specific
categories, though generally only the first steps are done.

Interpretation
The last phase of the assessment is meant to use all gathered information
to evaluate the accuracy of the data collected and whether or not the
12
study's goals were met. The stated outcome should reflect the
conclusions and limitations of the study as well as present relevant
recommendations. The interpretation should project confidence in the
study and relate results in a manner that is thorough and objective.

Impact on Sustainability
The LCA can be and has been used successfully in multiple industries. A
Brazilian cosmetics manufacturer, for example, measured and managed the
13
environmental impacts of its product using the LCA. Within the
agri-food sector, the tool is used to determine the environmental footprint
of various crops. It has also been used to assess the main contributions to
14
the carbon footprint of a wool sweater.

15
Still, the LCA has its critics.

One criticism is that it often doesn't account for human behavior,

and there are multiple ways to assess it.16 However, it has been
instrumental in creating environmental protection policy that could
extend to the implementation of sustainability standards. With the
proposal of the Social and Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
(SECLA) in 1996 and other agencies eagerly embracing a blended
standard called the Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment, it's likely
that LCAs in one form or another will continue to be at the forefront
of sustainability strategy.17

What is sustainability?
Sustainability is living in harmony with the natural world and protecting it from damage and

destruction while recognizing that humans need resources from the environment to ensure

their survival. Today, we live in a highly urbanized world that consumes large amounts of

energy to power a modern and consumerist-based lifestyle. This lifestyle that most of the

modern world has become accustomed to relies on harmful resources (like fossil fuels) to

create energy for our buildings and homes.

To live sustainably, we must abide by the most practical and impactful ways to protect the

environment while fostering humanity's economic and social development. Humans are

stewards of the planet, and solving the problems that threaten future life is our responsibility.

Sustainable development has become increasingly popular as more countries recognize the

critical responsibilities and economic opportunities that sustainable development can

provide, such as sanitation and a quality supply of food, water and energy for future

generations. Pursuing these goals is all done within the scope of minimizing the effects of

climate change, pollution and all other environmental factors that harm the planet.

Are all types of energy sustainable?

Not all types of energy are sustainable. While energy sources such as wind and solar are

considered sustainable for their renewable capabilities, plenty of unsustainable energy

sources are currently in use. It's argued that both biomass and nuclear may be renewable,

but they are not sustainable.

For example, biomass burns organic materials to create energy and is renewable, but that

energy production releases greenhouse gases which can be harmful to the environment.

Therefore, biomass is a renewable resource that can be considered unsustainable for

causing some harmful impacts on the planet.

In a similar case, nuclear energy can be renewable, but it creates nuclear waste that poses a

harmful threat to the environment. Nuclear waste is the byproduct of nuclear energy

production. When nuclear waste is stored, it can take anywhere from 1,000 to 10,000 years to

decay to a level that is no longer radioactive and harmful to the environment. Although some

scientists will argue that nuclear energy is renewable, it still cannot be considered

sustainable.

Nonrenewable and unsustainable energy sources are mainly composed of carbon elements.

These energy sources include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The reason why these energy

sources are considered unsustainable is that there is only a finite supply. Technically, these
energy sources can replenish themselves, but it can take millions of years to do so.

Therefore, they cannot be considered renewable for energy production with the number of

resources we demand.

What is the difference between renewable energy and sustainable energy?

Renewable energy is a type of energy production that comes from sources like wind and

water that naturally replenish themselves. For renewable energy sources like hydropower,

wind energy, and solar energy, production can remain constant as long as these resources

are available, which is essentially guaranteed.

In the same light, a sustainable energy source can be maintained for the indefinite future

without compromising or threatening future generations. As sustainability relies on

substituting harmful energy production processes with environmentally-friendly ones, most

renewable energy sources are considered sustainable based on their ability to generate

clean, reliable energy for the future.

Why is renewable energy sustainable?

A general rule for an energy source to be sustainable is its ability to be naturally replenished,

along with its resources having an ample supply for long-term use. Renewable energy
sources like wind energy, solar energy, and hydropower are sustainable forms of energy

because they have a low environmental impact, are widely available, and are naturally

replenished.

Another significant indication of whether or not an energy source is sustainable is based on

how much pollution is produced during the energy production process. If a particular type of

energy production creates air pollution, contributing to climate change, then it ultimately

cannot be considered sustainable. Renewable energy sources do not have these negative

impacts while in production and thus are considered clean and sustainable.

Is renewable energy hard to produce?

Although renewable energy is not hard to produce, it does have certain limitations when it

comes to making enough energy to meet all of our needs. For instance, wind and solar

energy production require a significant amount of land to generate sufficient electricity

needed to supply the power grid with energy. Another limiting factor is that the transition

from conventional forms of energy production, like fossil fuels, to new forms, like renewable

energy, takes quite a bit of time and resources. As renewable energy technology continues to
become more advanced and its costs continue to decrease, it will become easier to transition

to renewable energy production and supply power to future generations.

How long will renewable energy last?

The sun is a critical aspect of the production of renewable energy. As long as the sun

continues to produce light and no catastrophic events occur that disrupt the earth's naturally

occurring solar/hydro cycle, renewable energy can last indefinitely. When energy comes from

the sun, we can harness the light with solar panels. At the same time, the energy that is

transmitted from the sun heats the earth's surface water. The surface water then evaporates

and precipitates. Precipitation refills sources of surface water. As long as this solar/hydro

cycle remains, renewable energy can exist. However, there are regional exceptions. This

solar/hydro cycle can be disrupted in particular regions where drought-like conditions

persist. This can dramatically affect any local hydroelectric facilities that depend on the

existence and flow of water to produce electricity.

Can renewable energy run out?

It is highly unlikely, if not impossible that renewable energy can run out. Renewable energy

sources like solar, wind, and hydropower will not run out, based on their ability to replenish
naturally. There is no fixed supply of these types of energy sources, and instead, they will

renew through the environmental cycles occurring on the planet.

What can interfere with renewable energy production?

Although renewable energy has become more reliable and energy-efficient in recent years,

the weather affects renewable energy production methods. Wind turbines need wind at

minimum speeds to power their turbines. When wind speeds are too low, the turbines cannot

generate electricity. Similarly, hydropower requires enough rainfall to fill reservoirs, ensuring

a consistent flow of water to generate electricity. The solution to the problem of inconsistent

production levels based on weather is energy storage. While the weather can decrease

energy production for a brief period, renewable energy sources can store excess energy

when that energy is not required within the power grid.

Why is renewable energy better suited for our future?

The main reason renewable energy is better for our future needs is its sustainable

properties, helping to slow the harmful effects of climate change. We cannot continue to

burn fossil fuels at our current and past levels, which would surely guarantee irreversible

consequences on the environment. If we do not take responsibility now, these detrimental

issues will be increasingly difficult to combat. Investing directly in renewable energy has the

potential to save the world trillions of dollars in damages caused by the future effects of

climate change.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energies are sources of clean, inexhaustible and

increasingly competitive energy. They differ from fossil fuels
principally in their diversity, abundance and potential for use
anywhere on the planet, but above all in that they produce
neither greenhouse gases – which cause climate change – nor
polluting emissions. Their costs are also falling and at a
sustainable rate, whereas the general cost trend for fossil fuels is in
the opposite direction in spite of their present volatility.

Growth in clean energies is unstoppable, as reflected in

statistics produced annually by the International Energy Agency
(IEA): according to IEA forecasts, the share of renewables in global
electricity supply will increase from 28.7% in 2021 to 43% in 2030,
and they will provide 2/3 of the increase in electricity demand
recorded in that period, mainly through wind and photovoltaic
technologies.
According to the IEA, world electricity demand will have increased
by 70% by 2040 - its share of final energy use rising from 18 to 24%
during the same period – driven mainly by the emerging economies
of India, China, Africa, the Middle East and South-East Asia.

DISCOVER WHAT RENEWABLE ENERGIES ARE IN 2

MINUTES

Renewable energies are obtained from inexhaustible natural

sources and generate clean electricity without contributing to
climate change.