1.

What are the types of variables according to the role they play in the
research
being done? Describe each of the types of variables.

This classification helps researchers in designing their studies, choosing

appropriate measurement techniques, and analyzing their results accurately.
The five types of variables include independent variables, dependent
variables, categorical variables, continuous variables, and confounding
variables.

Independent variables
Independent variables are foundational to the structure of research, serving
as the factors or conditions that researchers manipulate or vary to observe
their effects on dependent variables. These variables are considered
"independent" because their variation does not depend on other variables
within the study. Instead, they are the cause or stimulus that directly
influences the outcomes being measured. For example, in an experiment to
assess the effectiveness of a new teaching method on student performance,
the teaching method applied (traditional vs. innovative) would be the
independent variable.

Dependent variables
Dependent variables are the outcomes or effects that researchers aim to
explore and understand in their studies. These variables are called
"dependent" because their values depend on the changes or variations of the
independent variables. Essentially, they are the responses or results that are
measured to assess the impact of the independent variable's manipulation.
For instance, in a study investigating the effect of exercise on weight loss,
the amount of weight lost would be considered the dependent variable, as it
depends on the exercise regimen (the independent variable).
 Categorical variables
Categorical variables, also known as qualitative variables, represent types or
categories that are used to group observations. These variables divide data
into distinct groups or categories that lack a numerical value but hold
significant meaning in research. Examples of categorical variables include
gender (male, female, other), type of vehicle (car, truck, motorcycle), or
marital status (single, married, divorced). These categories help researchers
organize data into groups for comparison and analysis.

Continuous variables
Continuous variables are quantitative variables that can take an infinite
number of values within a given range. These variables are measured along a
continuum and can represent very precise measurements. Examples of
continuous variables include height, weight, temperature, and time. Because
they can assume any value within a range, continuous variables allow for
detailed analysis and a high degree of accuracy in research findings.

Confounding variables
Confounding variables are those that can cause a false association between
the independent and dependent variables, potentially leading to incorrect
conclusions about the relationship being studied. These are extraneous
variables that were not considered in the study design but can influence both
the supposed cause and effect, creating a misleading correlation.

2. What are the four scales level of measurement? Describe each of the four
scales.

Nominal: the data can only be categorized

Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked

Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced

Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural
zero.

3. What are the qualities of a good research instrument? Explain each quality.
 Validity means how well the participants' answers match those outside the
study.
Reliability means whether the research method will produce similar results
multiple times.
Replicability means whether the research results can be used for other research
purposes.
Generalizability means whether the research data can be generalized or applied
to the whole population.

4. What are the types of validity?

Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method

measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-
world values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:

Construct validity: Does the test measure the concept that it’s intended to
measure?

Content validity: Is the test fully representative of what it aims to measure?

Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?

Criterion validity: Do the results accurately measure the concrete outcome

they are designed to measure?

5. What are the methods in testing the reliability of good research instrument?

Test-Retest Method (stability: measures error because of changes over time)

The same instrument is given twice to the same group of people. The reliability is
the correlation between the scores on the two instruments. If the results are
consistent over time, the scores should be similar. The trick with test-retest
reliability is determining how long to wait between the two administrations. One
should wait long enough so the subjects don’t remember how they responded the
first time they completed the instrument, but not so long that their knowledge of
the material being measured has changed. This may be a couple weeks to a couple
months.
If one were investigating the reliability of a test measuring mathematics skills, it
would not be wise to wait two months. The subjects probably would have gained
additional mathematics skills during the two months and thus would have scored
differently the second time they completed the test. We would not want their
knowledge to have changed between the first and second testing.

Equivalent-Form (Parallel or Alternate-Form) Method (measures error because of

differences in test forms)
Two different versions of the instrument are created. We assume both measure the
same thing. The same subjects complete both instruments during the same time
period. The scores on the two instruments are correlated to calculate the
consistency between the two forms of the instrument.

Internal-Consistency Method (measures error because of idiosyncrasies of the test

items)
Several internal-consistency methods exist. They have one thing in common. The
subjects complete one instrument one time. For this reason, this is the easiest form
of reliability to investigate. This method measures consistency within the
instrument three different ways.

6. Does your proposal possess qualities of good research instrument?