© IPA, 2006 - 21st Annual Convention Proceedings, 1992

I P A 93-13.02

PROCEEDINGS INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Twenty First Annual Convention, October 1992

GEOCHEMICAL INVERSION - A MODERN APPROACH TO INFERRING

SOURCE-ROCK IDENTITY FROM CHARACTERISTICS OF ACCUMULATED
OIL AND GAS

K. K. Bissada *
L. W. Elrod *
L. M. Darnell *
H. M. Szymczyk
J. L. Trostle *

ABSTRACT is demonstrated. The paper will also illustrate the

In recent years, petroleum geochemists have been re-
focussing their efforts on developing practical
means for inferring, from hydrocarbon chemistry and
geologic constraints, the "provenance" of hydrocarbon
accumulations, seeps or stains. This capability, referred
to here as "Geochemical Inversion", can be invaluable
to the explorationist in deriving clues as to the character,
age, identity, maturity and location of an accumulation's
source rocks and in evaluating a petroleum system's
hydrocarbon supply volumetrics: This is particularly
true where pertinent source-rock' information may be
absent because exploratory drilling focused strictly on
structural highs and failed to penetrate the deeply
buried, effective basinal source facies. Advances in
chemical analysis technology over the last decade have
facilitated the development of powerful geochemical
methods for deconvolution of complex chemistries of
crude oil and natural gas at the molecular and subatomic
levels to extract specific information on the hydro-
carbons' source. Inferences on such factors as organic
matter make-up, depositional environment, lithology,
age and maturity of the source can frequently be
drawn. These, together with a sound analysis of the
geologic and architectural constraints on the system,
can supply clues as to the identity and location of the
probable source sequence. This paper describes the
principles underlying geochemical "inversion" and
provides examples of its application in exploration and
exploitation settings.
Inversion of geochemical characteristics of migrated
hydrocarbon fluids to specific attributes of the source
* Texaco Inc., E&P Technology Department
utilization of systematic variations in fluid chemistry
within a geologic setting to infer source location,
degree of hydrocarbon mixing and relative migration
distance.
INTRODUCTION
As economics of oil and gas become more complex,
explorationists often are required to go beyond conven-
tional trap identification and trap capacity deter-
mination. Objective assessments of hydrocarbon supply
and migration patterns are becoming critical elements
in evaluating many exploration and exploitation
opportunities. Addressing hydrocarbon-supply volu-
metrics and migration patterns requires systematic
analyses of source attributes, source distribution,
transformation potentials, level of thermal transfor-
mation, source-to-trap transfer, efficiencies, and
correlation of any encountered hydrocarbons (seeps,
stains or accumulations) to one another and to the.
source rocks from which they were generated and
expelled. Whereas oil and gas samples are often readily
available for characterization and correlation analyses,
pertinent source rock information is frequently absent
because exploratory drilling typically focuses on
structural highs and seldom samples the deeply buried,
effective basinal source facies (Figure 1). Explorationists
are left with three options: (1) Make arbitrary
assumptions on the subsurface attributes of the system,
(2) forecast these attributes utilizing conceptual and
geochemical models constrained by physico-chemical
principles, or (3) utilize the chemical characteristic of
any encountered hydrocarbons to infer the possible
character, maturity and identity of the potential source
system. In this paper we will focus on this third
approach which we refer to as "geochemical inversion".
166
The explosive developments in chemical analysis
technology, coupled with enhanced data processing
capabilities over the last decade, have allowed the
development of some very powerful geochemical
methods not only for reliable oil-to-oil and oil-to-
source correlation, but also for deconvolution of the
complex chemistry of crude oil and natural gas at the
molecular and subatomic levels to extract information
on the hydrocarbons’ source. In principle, geochemical
inversion utilizes the same types of analytical procedures
used in conventional petroleum-to-source correlations
(Figure 2). The derived information may include specific
characteristics of the source rocks such as organic
matter make-up, lithology, and maturity. These con-
clusions can then lead to specific inferences about the
depositional environment, age , identity and location
of the hydrocarbon source sequence. The chemical
signatures of the hydrocarbon fluids can also provide
clues as to migration distances and fluid mixing.
This paper is by no means a comprehensive treatise on
geochemical inversion. It is intended only as an intro-
ductory review of the potentials and limitations of the
current technology in terms of its exploration and
exploitation applications. It is hoped that the subject
will draw attention to the utility of the tools in address-
ing such problems as delineation of gathering areas for
reserve-volumetrics analysis, predicting hydrocarbon
quality and producibility for risk assessment, and
defining migration paths and pay-zone inter-relation-
ships for exploitation planning.
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOCHEMICAL INVERSION
The basis for geochemical inversion lies in the processes
that originally form the oil and gas. Petroleum
originates in organic material that is deposited in
aquatic environments. The organic matter accumulating
in the potential source sediments possesses distinctive
chemical characteristics inherited from the specific
combination of organisms within the original ecosystem.
These characteristics, in turn, are transferred to the
generated products. Figure 3 is a schematic sketch of
the processes that affect a complex organic molecule
typifying the chemistry of the bio-mass as it is deposited
and transformed into oil and gas through processes of
digenesis, catagenesis, expulsion and migration. The
starting molecule typically would be unsaturated with
respect to organic hydrogen. It would have some
oxygen, some sulfur and perhaps some nitrogen atoms.
Molecules with this sort of structure are not stable in
the geologic system. As the molecule gets buried
deeper, it undergoes many changes. Mainly, oxygen
and other hetero-atoms are removed and the structure
becomes saturated with respect to hydrogen, eventualiy
becoming a hvdrocarbon. Once the hydrocarbon
forms, it is geologically stable, particularly if it ends up
being incorporated into an oil accumulation. The
product hydrocarbon retains the majority of the
structure that was in the original complex organic
molecule. Thus, by examining the encountered hydro-
carbons, it is possible to glean what type of organic
matter originally contributed to the petroleum.
This is substantially true also at the subatomic level.
The stable isotopes of carbon and hydrogen are not
appreciably altered during the burial and thermal
evolution of sedimentary organic matter from bio-
polymer through geopolymer (kerogen) , and even-
tually to oil and gas (Schoell, 1984). The inherent
isotopic fractionation that sets the original isotopic
composition of the parent organic matter is a normal
consequence of the physical chemistry of these isotopes.
For example, a normal carbon atom with mass number
12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus, whereas
a carbon with mass number 13 has one additional
neutron in the nucleus. This means that chemically the
two atoms are identical and thus will undergo the same
chemical reactions in exactly the same way. 13C,being
larger, however, generally reacts more slowly. Thus,
when it bonds with other carbons, it forms bonds that
are very slightly stronger than bonds between 12C.This
difference promotes segregation between organic
molecules with different relative abundances of the two
isotopes. Whenever carbon gets into the biological
system through the carbon cycle, the algae, bacteria or
higher plants processing this carbon have a tendency to
isotopically segregate it and set the 13C to 12Cratio in
the given ecosystem. This fractionation occurs because
of the way the two isotopes interact with the enzymatic
processes. Thus, the I3C to 12Cratio will vary with the
type of carbon available to the organisms during photo-
synthesis, the type of organic species contributing to
the oils, and with the chemical environmental stress
that the organisms were subjected to, regardless of age.
Different oils, then, should have distinct carbon isotope
signatures.
There are numerous factors that influence what
accumulates into the primary source material and what
happens to the organic matter upon deposition, trans-
formation into hydrocarbons, and migration of the
products through the carrier system. Variation in these
factors and conditions influence not only the character
of the hydrocarbon blend that is generated and
entrapped, but also the isotopic composition of the
carbon that makes up the hydrocarbons. These factors
are summarized in Figure 4. Top among these factors
are:
I. Type of organic material in the prevailing eco-
system.

Was it dominantly algal?
Was it dominantly bacterial?
Was higher-plant input significant? (Post-Silurian)
Were they flowering plants (angiosperms)? (Post-
Jurassic).
In fact, the specific species of the biomass may
have profound effects on the character of the
resulting oil.
2. Type of depositional environment.
Was it marine or lacustrine?
Was it deep-water (>500 m) or shallow water
(>200 m) '?
Was it oxidizing or reducing?
Was the biological oxygen demand high?
Was it hypersaline?
Was it alkaline?
3. Source-rock matrix lithology.
Was it dominantly clastics?
Was it dominantly carbonates?
4. Migration factors.
Was migration long-range or short?
Was the carrier system highly retentive?
Was entrainment of carrier constituents
significant?
In fact, migration through a highly carbonaceous
carrier system could contribute substantially to the
product's fingerprint.
But this is not all. Once the oil has been generated and
emplaced into the reservoir, its character can be further
modified by a number of subsurface alteration processes
(Figure 5 ) :
5 . Alteration factors.
Was the oil water-washed in the reservoir'!
Was it biodegraded? To what extent?
If it is a light crude/condensate, is it a primary
condensate, a product of phase segregation, or
thermal degradation?
These complexities cause every oil accumulation to
look a little bit different, having had different organic
input, a different depositional environment or a
different generation history. The effects leave their
mark on the ultimate composition of the product
which, in turn, allows inversion of the geochemical
characteristics of the accumulated hydrocarbons to
specific attributes of the generative system and its
history.
Effective geochemical Inversion requires that the
geochemist consider the contribution of all the pertinent
167
factors to the final composition of the hydrocarbons.
The inversion process can be performed in two ways:
1. Interpretation of attributes in the hydrocarbon
composition that are directly related to the source
character and identity.
2. Interpretation of the systematic variations in fluid
chemistry within the regional geologic framework
and drawing inferences on sourcing direction, degree
of hydrocarbon mixing, relative contribution of
multiple sources, and relative migration distances.
This approach capitalizes on migration-sensitive
and alteration-sensitive parameters to draw the
inferences.
DIRECT INFERENCING OF SOURCE CHARACTER
OR IDENTITY
ORGANIC INPUT AND SOURCE ENVIRONMENT
A large variety of organisms have been available for
incorporation into sediments and subsequent transfor-
mation into hydrocarbons. During this transformation,
many of the specific organic compounds that constituted
the organisms often retain much of their original
structure, distribution and stereochemistry in the
accumulated hydrocarbon fluid. Concurrently, the
environment of deposition of the source rock can have
a profound effect on the characteristics of the resultant
hydrocarbons, partly because the environmental stresses
alter the conditions under which the affiliated
organisms grow and partly because the prevailing
physicmhemical conditions modify the organic material
during and immediately after deposition. Thus, the
parameters for inferring depositionai environments are
often intimately linked to those for inferring organic
input. Careful interpretation of the distribution of the
various components in the hydrocarbon fluid provides
clues about the organisms that contributed to the
original source organic material and/or about the
environments under which the source rocks have been
deposited.
At the simplest level, the distribution of the normal
paraffins in an undegraded oil can indicate the type of
organic material that contributed to the source.
Although algae and bacteria probably represent the
common basis for all crudes (Lijmbach, 1975), contri-
bution of specific compounds to the source matter
m u l d impart specific characteristics on the overall
crude-oil character. Thus, oils that contain high
proportions of waxy paraffins (long-chain n-paraffins
with > 22 carbon atoms) may be interpreted to have
been genqated from sources that contain anomalously
high proportions of higher plant material (waxy leaf
168
cuticle) in the kerogen mix (Figure 6-a). This, in turn,
indicates proximity of the original depositional system
to a source of terrestrial plant detritus; i.e., a near-
shore facies. Figure 6-b shows an example from the
Moray Firth area of the North Sea where the southeast-
erly increase in contribution of higher plant kerogen to
Kimmeridgian source rocks is indeed paralleled by a
southeasterly increase in content of CIS+ ”waxy”
n-paraffins in the crudes (Bissada, 1983).
Waxy crudes may alternately signify generation from
organic matter containing abundant remains of certain
lacustrine algae that are enriched in long-chain n-
alkanes and alkenes. Of the numerous geochemically
significant algae listed in Table I, those that could
contribute waxy n-paraffin precursors are identified in
the right hand column (Gelpi et al., 1970). Large
accumulations of high-wax crudes are known to have
been sourced from many synrift lacustrine systems
around the world (e.g., Williams et al., 1985). Figure 7
illustrates the distinction between chromatograms of
oils from ”non-marine” vs. ”marine” algal source
rocks. Generally, chromatograms of non-marine-
sourced oils show:
1. Enrichment of n-paraffins in the range n-C2, to
n-C,,.
2. Pronounced odd:even predominance in the n-
paraffin distributions in this range.
3 . Convex curve (relative to baseline) following the
n-paraffin distribution.
In contrast, chromatograms of marine-sourced oils
show:
1. Depletion in n-paraffins above n-C,,.
2. Less pronounced odd:even predominance.
3. A concave curve following the n-paraffin distri-
bution.
These observations are similar to those cited by Sofer,
1984 and Peters et al., 1986.
The ratio of pristane (Pr) to phytane (Ph) in a crude oil
has frequently been used as an indicator of either
relative importance of higher-plant input vs bacterial
inputs (Brooks et al., 1969; ten Haven et al., 1987), or
redox conditions within the depositional system
(Powell and McKirdy, 1973; Didyk et al., 1978). The
underlying concepts are:
1. High Pr/Ph ratios (>1) signify either:
sub-oxic to oxic conditions, or
high input of allochthonous higher-plant material.
2 . Low Pr/Ph ratios (<1) signify either:
highly anoxic conditions, or
high bacterial input.
Because the relative proportions of pristane to phytane
in the system increase with increasing thermal matura-
tion, interpretation of inversions of the Pr/Ph index
strictly to source-rock paleoenvironments and kerogen
types must be done with caution.
Connan and Cassou (1980) and Lijmbach (1975) pro-
posed using the Pr/n-C,, and Ph/n-C,, ratios for a crude
to invert to the type of organic facies which could have
sourced the oil. Although these ratios are not entirely
independent of biodegradation and thermal maturation,
they are quite useful in inferring source facies especially
when used together (Figure 8; template modified from
Schumacher and Parker, 1990).
Sofer (1984) proposed an interpretation scheme for
separating marine-sourced oils from non-marine oils
using the carbon isotopic composition of the saturate
and aromatic fractions of the oil. Data from Texaco’s
archives, exemplified in Figure 9,, do not support this
approach.
Nevertheless, stable carbon isotopic compositions of
crude oils can provide valuable insights into the
environments of deposition of tne parent source
because of their sensitivity to the type of precursor
contributing to the oils and to the type of carbon
available to the organisms during photosynthesis
(primary atmospheric COz vs. recycled organic C02).
Figure 10 relates the 6 I3Cranges of isotopically distinct
crude oils to the 6 I3Cranges of phytoplankton develop-
ing within photic zones overlying bathymetrically
distinct environments. The isotopic composition of CO,
available for photosynthesis in these environments is
also shown for comparison. These relationships are
identical to those recognized by Lewan (1986). In his
work on isotopic composition of precursor amorphous
kerogens, Lewan (1986) described two end members:
Isotopically light kerogen, ”l-amorphous”, with 6 13C
values ranging between -26 to -35 X ,ascribed to
phytoplankton residing in environments overlying
stratified, shallow (<200 m) waters, within restricted
circulation basins and epicontinental seas where the
prevailing carbon source in the photic zone is
dominated by organic-derived CO,, ”recycled” from
the decomposition of organic matter near the bottom.
Isotopically heavy kerogen, ”h-amorphous”, with 6
13Cvalues ranging between -20 to -24 %o, ascribed to
phytoplankton residing in environments overlying
expansive, well-circulated, deep (>500 m) waters,

within silled basins where the prevailing source of
carbon in the photic zone is atmospheric C 0 2 (with
negligible influence from the deep organic C 0 2 by
virtue of its diffusion and dilution through a long and
well-mixed water column).
Stable carbon isotope compositions (13CI'zC) are usually expressed in the
k-notation as parts per thousand deviation from the '3C/'2C ratio of a standard
carbon compound (carbonate-carbon in the Pee Dee Belemnite) to signify the
relative abundance of the rare, heavy isotope. Because carbon in petroleum is
relatively more enriched in the lighter isotope than carbon of the Pee Dee
standard, the 6 13C values are reported as negative numbers. Increasingly
negative S I3C values indicate increasing enrichment in the lighter isotope.
Isotopic compositions of oils ascribed to the Miocene
Monterey formation invert to kerogen isotopic
composition of -20 to -22 %o, suggesting deep-water
facies for the source rocks. In fact, the Monterey Fm. is
believed to have been deposited in silled, deep-water
(>1,000 m) basins with a common overlying water
body open to the Pacific Ocean (Ingle, 1981). In
contrast, 6 I3C values for oils ascribed to the Devonian/
Mississippian New Albany Shale of the Illinois basin
invert to kerogen 6 I3C values of -28 to -30 %o. The New
Albany is believed to have been deposited in a shallow
(< 200 m), restricted epicontinental sea with a well
developed anaerobic water column (Rich, 1951). One
can therefore generalize that isotopically heavy oils (6
13C values of -18 to - 24 % o ) , whether marine or
lacustrine in origin, can be attributed to deep-water
facies, and isotopically light oils (6 I3C values of -26 to
-32 %.I, whether marine or lacustrine, can be attributed
to shallow-water facies.
Figure 1 1 compares the compound-specific n-paraffin
isotopic compositions and n-paraffin distributions of
two oils of contrasting source facies. Because the n-
paraffin distribution curve for the Persian Gulf oil is
concave, the oil is inferred to be from a marine algal
source. Furthermore, because the n-paraffins are
isotopically light (6 values of -28 to -31 %o), the
source is inferred to be a shallow-water ( t 2 0 0 m>
facies, probably deposited in a restricted epicontinental
sea. Conversely, the South China Sea oil displays a
convex, waxy n-paraffin distribution pattern, and
therefore is interpreted to be sourced by a non-marine,
lacustrine algal facies. Because its n-paraffins are
isotopically heavy (6 13C values of -18 to -21 %o), its
source rocks were probably deposited in a large, deep-
water synrift trough, with restricted circulation near the
bottom but active circulation in a long (>500 m) water
column above.
169
dnder certain circumstances a specific organism may
constitute the major portion of the organic matter of a
given source rock. Under these circumstances, the
generated hydrocarbons inherit a very specific,
diagnostic pattern in the distribution of the normal and
iso-paraffins. For example, many pf the oils of West
Texas, Oklahoma, and other paleozoic basins display
very peculiar chemistry characteristic of primitive algae
known as Gloeocupsomorphu prisca (G. prisca). The
dominant features of these oils are shown in Figure 12
and summarized below:
1. Virtual absence of paraffins larger than n-CZ2.
2. Distinct predominance of the paraffins with odd
numbers of carbon atoms in the n-C17to n-CI9range.
3. Little or no isoprenoids (Figure 12) (pristane or
phytane).
4. Very light carbon isotopic compositions (6 13C <-
33%0).
As mentioned earlier, the organic matter accumulating
in the potential ,source sediments possesses distinctive
biochemical characteristics inherited from the specific
combination of organisms within the original ecosystem.
These characteristics, in turn, are transferred to the
generated products in the form of molecular geo-
chemical "fossils" or biomarkers (Figure 13). Among
these are the series of compounds known as "iso-
prenoids", derived mainly from the side chain on the
chlorophyll molecule, a series known as "triterpanes",
derived mainly from cell membranes of prokaryotic
organisms (bacteria and blue-green algae), and a series
known as "steranes", derived mainly from steroids of
algae and higher organisms. The use of the isoprenoids
pristane and phytane to infer organic facies has been
illustrated above.
The identification of more specific biomarker com-
pounds in an oil can be very useful in inferring many
attributes of the parent source rock. Figure 14 is a
typical G U M S trace showing the distribution of a series
of triterpane biomarker compounds in a crude oil. The
computer-constructed plot displays the intensity of the
common mass-spectral fragment ion of the individual
components in the series as each emerges from the
chromatographic column. The peaks represent the
isomers and carbon number distribution of the tricyclic
and pentacyclic triterpanes in the crude.
Interpretation of such traces unravels a lot of the
mystery surrounding the origin of a crude. For
example, the dominance of tricyclic over pentacyclic
triterpanes (ratio > 1) in the crude provides a criterion
170
to establish the dominance of the microbial or algal
contribution because tricyclics are characteristi-
cally absent in extracts from higher plant kerogens
(Zumberge, 1987). C&s enrid. G d: in tricyclics should be
interpreted to have originated in a distal marine facies
far removed from any terrestrial input, or in lacustrine
shales containing Type I kerogen. This criterion must,
however, be tempered by the fact that the dominance
of the tricyclics ~2aymerely reflect the higher thermal
stability of the tricyclic terpanes and their inherent
ability to persist to higher maturation levels (Schou
et al., 1984).
The presence or absence of significant quantities of
oieanane in an oil should signify whether or not remains
of flowering plants (angiosperms) contributed signifi-
cantly to the kerogen mix within the source rocks (Philp
and Gilbert, 1986). This in turn aids in inferring the
extent of terrestrial input and therefore the nature of
the depositional facies that sourced the oil. The utility
of oleanane for this purpose is restricted to post-Middle
Cretaceous systems because flowering plants did not
fully evolve until that time.
Severely anoxic depositional environments are mani-
fested by unique distributions of biomarkers linked to
certain sulfur-reducing bacteria that produce 28,30-
bisnorhopane as a metabolic product (Katz and Elrod,
1983). Because this compound is stable in the geologic
environment, it can remain with the organic material
until oil is expelled, at which time it travels with the oil.
Thus, oils in which the bisnorhopane is very prominent,
as in the Miocene crudes of California, should be inter-
preted to have originated in rocks associated with
bacterial mats deposited under severely anoxic
conditions.
Recognizing the significance of oleanane and bisnor-
hopane as paleoenvironmental indicators allows one to
use their relative abundances in a crude oil to infer the
relative contribution of terrestrial organics versus
marine bacterial components. This would in turn
help in delineating, or at least speculating on, the
responsible source facies within the petroleum system.
An anomalously high content of the extended hopanes
(C-31 to C-35 homohopanes >75%) may indicate
significant bacterial input and may imply sourcing from
rocks of 1 hypersaline facies where the development of
other living communities was inhibited (Dembicki et
al., 1976). Hypersaline environments impart distinctive
characteristics to the organic material of a source rock
and consequently to the generated crude oil. Oils
enriched in gammacerane and carotane, and impover-
ished in. tetracyclic terpanes are interpreted to have
been sourced by rocks of a hypersaline facies. Because
hypersalinity commonly accompanies anoxic carbonate
facies development, oils from hypersaline environ-
ments will also display features of oils generated in
carbonate/evaporite rich rocks. The following inversion
criteria can be used for recognition of hypersaline facies
(ten Haven, et al., 1988):
1. Ph>>Pr.
2. Even-Odd-Preference @ C,,>>l.
i.e.[2*n-C2, / {n-C,, +n-C,,}]>>l
3. High abundance of squalane.
4. High abundance of regular C-25 isoprenoid.
5. High abundance of gammacerane.
6. Full complement of C-31 to C-35 extended hopane
series maximizing at the C-35 doublet.
7. Within the C-27, C-28 and C-29 regular sterane
series, BBR and BBS concentrations are higher than
those of aaS.
+
(i.e., C-27 BBR C-27 BBS > C-27 aaS;
+
C-28 BBR C-28 BBS > C-28
C-29 BBR C-29 1313s > C-29 aaS; Figure 15).
In spite of the complexities and ambiguities encountered
in their interpretation, the distributions of sterane
biomarkers in crude oils provide valuable supporting
information for geochemical inversion. Figure 15
displays the biomarker traces for a Jurassic crude oil
from the Mississippi Salt Basin (USA). The tricyclic
and pentacyclic terpane fragmentograms (M/Z 191) of
the oil are complemented by the sterane fragmento-
gram (M/Z 217) to capture as much diagnostic infor-
mation as possible. In general, the oil is interpreted to
have been sourced from an anoxic, possibly hypersaline,
carbonate-phosphate-rich source facies. At the outset,
the low abundances of the C-19 to C-22 and C-24 to
C-26 tricyclic terpanes relative to the C-23 tricyclic and
C-24 tetracyclic terpanes is typical of a carbonate-
phosphate-rich source facies (Sofer, 1990). The lower
pentacyclic terpane (hopanes) abundance relative to
the steranes, reflects the strong influence of the
autochthonous algal input to the source. The C-27 to
(2-29 sterane ratio in a crude oil is traditionally used as
an indicator of the relative importance of marine
(dominantly C-27) versus terrestrial (dominantly C-29)
organic matter into the source (Huang and Meinschein,
1979; Hoffman et al., 1984; Wenger et al., 1988). In the
example of the Smackover crude oil described here,
however, the strong predominance of the C-29 over the
C-27 regular steranes cannot be interpreted along the
traditional lines as higher-plant related. The character-
istics documented are in fact a common feature in many
CarbonateYevaporite-sourced oils. The high proportion
of C-29 sterane in this situation is obviously not related
to vascular plant input but perhaps to a very specific
type of non-terrigenous algal population contributing a
C-29 sterane precursor (Volkman, 1986; Brassel and

Eglinton, 1983). Examples of oils with these character-
istics have been reported from the Silurian of the
Michigan Basin (Rullkotter et al., 1986) and the Late
Precambrian of Oman (Grantham, 1986).
LITHOFACIES
As noted in the previous paragraph, the chemistry of a
crude oil can provide information about the lithology of
the source. Since specific geologic environments will
favor the deposition of certain lithologies as well as
certain organisms, these parameters can overlap with
those related to organic input. For example, the
Smackover oil, whose fingerprints are displayed in
Figure 15, shares the following distinguishing character-
istics with typical oils generated from anoxic, possibly
hypersaline, dominantly algal / bacterial, carbonate-
rich source facies:
1. Even carbon number n-paraffin predominance
(Welte and Waples, 1973);
2. Extended C-31 to (2-35 hopanes >> 55% of total
hopane content;
3. C-35/C-34 hopane ratio > 1.0;
4. Relatively high sulfur contents (Gransch and
Posthuma, 1974; Orr, 1986);
5 . Pr/Ph ratios < 1.0;
6. Aromatic-Naphthenic character (Tissot and Welte,
1984);
7. C-30 hopane/C-29 norhopane ratio < 1.0;
8. Moretanes < 6% of total terpane content.
Furthermore, minerals deposited with organic material
can alter the material during deposition and diagenesis
and thus influence the composition of the resultant
biomarkers and hydrocarbons. Because clay-rich
sources effectively acid-catalyze backbone rearrange-
ment of regular steranes to rearranged steranes during
diageneses, crude oils exhibiting enrichment in the
rearranged steranes (diasteranes: C-27 R a S , RaR, and
a B S ; C-28 a R S , OaR and a13R;and C-29 R a S , 8 a R and
a R S ) relative to the regular steranes (C-27 aaS, BBR,
BBS and aaR; C-28 aaS, BRR, RRS and a a R ; and C-29
aaS, RBR, BRS and a a R ) can be interpreted as having
been sourced from a clay-rich source facies. At the
regional level, the relative proportions of regular
steranes to rearranged steranes in crude oils provides
clues as to the extent of clastic vs. carbonate contri-
bution to the petroleum system. This, in turn, aids in
delineating which part of a stratigraphic sequence is the
main contributor to the system. The very low diasterane
content of the Smackover oil described above (<20%
of the total M/Z 217 steranes abundance; Figure 15) is
typical of carbonate lithofacies with little or no clay. It
fits perfectly with the rest of the inversion indices for
that crude. Having been sourced from a carbonate
171
sequence, its biomarker distribution is enriched in C-35
relative to the C-34 hopanes, its normal paraffins show
an even carbon-number predominance and its sulfur
and aromatics contents are relatively high.
SOURCE AGE
Absolute age is a particularly difficult source attribute
to infer based on oil composition. Except for the
possibility of decay of radioisotopes, age, in itself, does
not impart attributes to oil and gas. The primary
influence of age is in the evolution and extinction
processes of organisms that change the menu of
organisms available for deposition and subsequent
transformation to hydrocarbons. Thus parameters used
for source age usually overlap with other parameters.
Under certain circumstances a specific organism of very
narrow stratigraphic affinity may constitute the major
portion of the organic matter of a given source rock.
Under these circumstances, the generated hydro-
carbons inherit a very specific, diagnostic chemistry. As
discussed earlier (Figure 12), many of the oils of West
Texas, Oklahoma, and other Paleozoic basins have
inherited peculiar characteristics from the primitive
algae G. prisca that apparently contributed significantly
to their source rock. The oils display virtual absence of
paraffins larger than n-C22, distinct predominance of
the n-paraffins with odd numbers of carbon atoms in
the n-CI7to n-C,, range, little or no pristane or phytane,
and very light carbon isotopic compositions (6 13C
<-33%,). Because G. prisca was prevalent only during
the Ordovician, these parameters indicate not only
the presence of the algae, but that the source is of
Ordovician age.
Again, we have shown earlier that the presence of
significant quantities of oleanane in an oil should signify
that remains of angiosperms (flowering plants) contrib-
uted significantly to the kerogen mix within the source
rocks (Philp and Gilbert, 1986). Since angiosperms
were not present prior to Early Cretaceous time, the
presence of oleanane in significant abundance should
also indicate that the source is postJurassic. The
corollary of that concept is also useful. Oils with a
clearly strong terrestrial influence, devoid of the tricyclic
terpanes, anomalously enriched in pristane relative to
phytane (Pr/Ph ratio >3), etc. , but devoid of oleanane
should indicate a pre-Middle Cretaceous source.
Whereas the presence of oleanane or the characteristic
traits of oils influenced by the G. prisca algae clearly
indicate that the source of an oil is postJurassic or
Ordovician respectively, attempts at developing more
absolute dating methods are underway. Age-dating of
effective source rocks using iodine isotopic compositions
172
(1281/1291)in Cretaceous or younger crude oils may be
attainable in the near future.
SOURCE THERMAL MATURITY‘
Because the properties of oil and gas are related to the
maturity of the source rocks at the time of expulsion,
the molecular and isotopic compositions of the oils and
gases can provide useful indices for estimating the level
of thermal maturity at which the hydrocarbons were
generated and expelled, provided, of course, they were
not subjected to further thermal alteration subsequent
to migration and emplacement in the reservoir.
Because thermal maturity of subsurface sequences can
be independently measured or modelled in terms of
depth, temperature or time, the correlation of the two
maturity estimates provides a means for inverting the
information to source depth, location and, possibly,
identity.
This approach can be most useful in addressing
problems of inferring depth and identity of sources
of gas accumulations. The stable carbon isotopic
compositions of thermogenic methane and other hydro-
carbon gases (ethane, propane and butane) reflect the
extent of thermal maturation of the parent kerogen in
the source rocks. Several relationships have been
established. Figure 16 shows the relationship between
the 6 13Cvalues of methane and the vitrinite reflectance
index of its source rocks (Stahl, 1977). Faber (1987)
demonstrated that thermal maturity of the source rocks
can be inferred also from the relationship of the 6 13C
values of the ethane and propane in the hydrocarbon
mix (Figure 17). Thus, one can measure the isotopic
composition of methane and ethane, use one or the
other of the relationships in Figures 16 or 17 to invert
the isotopic information to a thermal maturation value,
and relate the latter to a depth/”pick” on a stratigraphic
or seismic section of the subsurface.
Figure 18 depicts a situation in which wet gas accumu-
lations occur in reservoirs at 9,000‘ and 13,000’. The
isotopic composition of the methane was determined by
isotope-ratio mass-spectrometry (IRMS) to be about
-44 % in both cases. Using Stahl’s relationship of 6 13C
vs. vitrinite reflectance, it was deduced that the
methane has been sourced from kerogens that attained
maturation levels corresponding to an R, value of
0.7%. Geochemical analysis of rocks from the entire
stratigraphic sequence revealed that organic-rich rocks
with varying levels of thermal maturity occur at various
depths within the section. However, only the organic-
rich unit near 13,500’ shows R, values of about 0.7%.
It is conceivable, therefore, that the gas in both reser-
voirs has been sourced primarily from that unit.
Bissada et al. (1990) used this approach to infer a pre-
Tertiary source for a gas and oil discovery in the Plio-
Pleistocene trend in the Gulf of Mexico. Figure 19
depicts the situation where the penetrated section
never encountered an adequate source rock. The
anomalously heavy carbon isotopic composition of the
associated methane inverts to a kerogen thermal
maturity equivalent of 2.5% R,. Thermal maturation
modeling using interpreted seismic picks and regional
heat-flow data indicate that this level of maturity is
attained at a depth exceeding 30,000‘ in Cretaceous or
Jurassic rocks.
Inverting molecular composition of hydrocarbons in
crude oil to thermal maturity information is more
complex, and usually much less significant than
inversions drawn on hydrocarbon gases. Oil generation
and expulsion begin and end as pulses within a
relatively narrow thermal maturation window defined
by the 0.68% R, boundary near the top and the 1.2%
R, boundary near the bottom (Bissada, 1982). Fluids
from these pulses mix and homogenize within the
overall accumulation, diluting and averaging the pulse-
or depth-specific information. However, because
expulsion is effected by pore-pressure-induced fractur-
ing accompanying fluid build-up within the source rock,
onset of expulsion will occur at the mild end of the peak
generation window in very rich source rocks and at a
higher maturity level in lean source rocks. Thus, a brief
discussion of the significance of inversion of molecular
data to thermal maturity information is warranted in
this section.
In oils that are known to have suffered no post-
expulsion maturation, and those that are known to be
free of spurious biomarkers entrained during migration
through organically-rich (coaly) carrier systems,
biomarker distributions may provide clues to the
effective thermal stress and, thus, the stage of maturity
at which expulsion had occurred. This, in turn, provides
clues to the effective depth of burial of the source
rocks, particularly in tectonically simple systems.
Of the numerous biomarker-based thermal maturity
indicators proposed in the geochemical literature, the
aa-sterane epimerization products appear to be most
popular (Waples and Machihara, 1991). The ratios of
three pairs of peaks on the sterane GC/MS trace in
Figure 15 are particularly significant:
The C-27 aaS : C-27 a a R ,
the C-28 aaS : C-28 a a R , and
the C-29 aaS : C-29 a a R .
These ratios, commonly referred to as the 20S/20R
epimer ratios, increase with increasing maturity. The
biologically inherited forms are exclusively the aaR.

With increasing maturity the proportion of the 20S:20R
increases as some of the 20R molecules change con-
figuration to the 20s form. Ultimately an equilibrium
ratio of 55% 20s : 45% 20R is attained. Beyond that
point maturation of the parent kerogen can no longer
be traced. From an operational point of view, the
following indices may be found useful:
Stage Equivalent R, aa(20S) :aa(20R)
Biological precursor 0 0.3% Zero
Pre-generation 0.51% 30 : 70
Onset of generation 0.55-0.68% 40 : 60
Peak gener./expulsion 0.68-0.80% 45 : 55
Equilibrium ratio > 0.8% 55 : 45
At the higher maturity side of the generation window,
another set of biomarkers may be useful as supple-
ments to the 20S/20R sterane ratios. These are
represented by the C-27 Ts (l8a-trisnorhopane) and
the C-27 Tm (17a-trisnorhopane) peaks on the penta-
cyclic triterpane trace (M/Z 191) in Figure 15.
Although the ratio is somewhat dependent on organic
matter input, generally, oils that are substantially
expelled from the source system at maturation levels
below 0.9% R, display Ts/Tm ratios of less than one.
The ratio begins to increase gradually as the Tm isomer
gradually disappears under increased thermal stress.
INFERRING MIGRATION PATTERNS AND
HYDROCARBONPROVENANCE
In the previous section we dealt primarily with direct
means for inferring source identity using attributes in
the hydrocarbon composition that are directly related
to the source character and maturity. Interpretation of
the systematic variations in fluid chemistry within the
regional geologic context and drawing inferences on
sourcing direction, degree of hydrocarbon mixing,
relative contribution of multiple sources, and relative
migration distances can he even more useful. Migration-
sensitive and alteration-sensitive parameters are
particularly useful in this approach and integration of
the geochemical data with available geologic and
geophysical information is most critical.
Robison and Bissada (1992) used this approach to
identify and delineate the depth and areal extent of the
unpenetrated probable effective generative sequence
within the Zhu 1 depression in the Pearl River Mouth
basin, South China Sea. Figure 20 depicts the situation
where drilling netted numerous discoveries but en-
countered no source rocks within the penetrated
section. The oils show identical "genetic codes",
inasmuch as their isotopic { 6 13C } and biomarker
173
{isoprenoids, triterpanes (M/Z 191) and steranes (M/Z
217)) characteristics are essentially identical. The
physical and gross chemical characteristics that are
diagnostic of post emplacement alteration, however,
show distinct differences: The shallowest oil exhibits
the lowest API gravity (22.3,), the highest isoprenoid/
n-paraffin ratio (Pr/n-C,+ 4.0), and a virtually feature-
less saturate hydrocarbon chromatogram. These are
characteristics of a severely biodegraded crude. The
degree of biodegradation appears to decrease with
depth, becoming virtually imperceptible below the
"biological sterility boundary" at 160" F (red horizontal
marker on Figure 20). From these observations it was
inferred that the oil was generated from one source
system at depths below the top of the oil window (green
horizontal marker on Figure 20), migrated generally
up-dip from the NW towards the SE, and entrapped to
spill point in structural traps along the migration path.
Because the non-biodegraded crudes display non-
marine, highly waxy characteristics, they are inferred to
have been generated in a lacustrine source system
within the synrift sequence identified on the seismic
section.
The example from the Pearl River Mouth basin is a
simple one where sourcing appears to be limited to one
trough in the Zhu 1 depression. In many cases, how-
ever, the oil found in a reservoir may not be from a
single source, but is the composite of hydrocarbons
derived from two or more sources that have converged
upon the same trap. In such cases the composition of
the oil will display contradictory features that make
classification and inversion difficult, unless a mixing
scenario i s invoked. In cases where "end member" oils
from each contributing source are also available, the
process of deconvolution of the mixed characteristics
becomes feasible. Figure 21 illustrates this application
with an example from an offshore rift basin in South-
east Asia. Recent discoveries indicated the existence of
at least two distinct families of oils and a mixed group.
Each of the two primary oil families exhibits distinctive
distributions of steranes and triterpanes as well as
carbon isotopic compositions that makes them easily
distinguishable. The third type possesses complex
characteristics that in some ways more resemble one
group of oils and in other ways more resemble the
other. Specifically, one family appears consistent with a
freshwater to brackish lake source as evidenced by a
high proportion of C3" steranes, absence of gamma-
cerane, low proportion of tricyclics and waxy character.
The second family exhibits high gammacerane content
and an absence of C30steranes suggesting a hypersaline,
lacustrine source. The third family exhibits mixed
characteristics of the other two. Placing all the infor-
mation into the basinal structural framework of a
system of two partially overlapping, opposing half
174
grabens (Figure 21) revealed that Group I and Group I1
oils were focussed on the hinge margins (platforms) of
the two discrete generative troughs and that the
mixed group was located on the interference ridge
appropriately situated to receive hydrocarbons from
both troughs.
As previously discussed, the processes of segregation
and alteration during migration, and subsequently in
the reservoir, can have a profound effect on the
ultimate composition of the produced fluids in different
sites, even though they may have had a common source.
Failure to consider such effects can lead to erroneous
conclusions concerning the genetic relationships and
the provenance of the oils. Conversely, proper consid-
eration of these factors can provide additional infor-
mation upon which the geoscientist can base his
inferences. This is illustrated in the case example shown
in Figure 22 where exploitation planning in the region
required analysis of the critical factors in the hydro-
carbon generation and migration process that might
have controlled the observed distribution of oil and gas
in the productive resexvoirs. Examination of fluids
produced from numerous fields in the region revealed a
variety of accumulations ranging from oils with various
oil-gas ratios to virtually all gas in an apparently
random pattern. The molecular and isotopic charac-
teristics of all the oils inverted to a lacustrine source
facies, sometimes with hypersaline attributes. Because
no viable lacustrine source facies has been encountered
in exploratory drilling in the area, the inference
instigated a detailed examination of seismic data in
search for manifestations of deep troughs within which
lacustrine facies might have developed. Mapping of the
positions of these troughs with the occurrence of oil vs.
gas in the area (Figure 22) and superimposing the
molecular and isotopic characteristics revealed that the
oil-gas-condensate distribution and the biomarker
patterns are related to the distance of the reservoir
from the edge of the seismicly-delineated troughs.
SUMMARY
In this paper the principles underlying geochemical
"inversion" were described and examples of its appli-
cation in exploration and exploitation settings were
provided. Various indices used in inversion of geo-
chemical characteristics of migrated hydrocarbons to
specific attributes of the source were summarized and
their application in inferring character, age, identity,
maturity and location of that source were discussed.
The utilization of the systematic variations in fluid
chemistry within a geologic setting to infer source
location, degree of hydrocarbon mixing and relative
migration distance were illustrated. It is hoped that thc
review will draw attention to the utility of the tools in
addressing such problems as delineation of gathering
areas for hydrocarbon volumetrics analysis, predicting
hydrocarbon quality and producibility for risk assess-
ment, and defining migration paths and pay-zone inter-
relationships for exploitation planning. Whereas
the tools and techniques described here may prove
invaluable to the explorationist and exploitation
geologist, it is important to recognize that, as with all
predictive and interpretive aspects of geoscience, any
inferences or conclusions based on this methodology
must be treated as probabilistic rather than absolute.
The interpreter should use all available information in
conjunction with the geological data in making the
pertinent inferences.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Texaco Exploration and
Production Technology Department for making their
facilities and data available for the work. We thank
Texaco Inc. for permission to publish. We would also
like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. C. R. Robison
for his contribution to Figure 21 and to Dr. P. A.
Kelly for supplying Figure 22, to Mr. J. T. Motelet for
assistance in preparing Figure 20, and to Ms. R. J. Ash
and Ms. D. J. Tucker for their assistance in preparing
many of the figures and the manuscript.
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 177

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 Geochemical Correlation

oil - oil
Correlation

Source Samples
Oil Source
- Not Available for
Correlation Correlation
‘b 4

FIGURE 1 - Concept of oil-to-oil and oil-to-source correlation. Oil samples can be compared to one another to
determine genetic relationships and to source samples to determine the source-product
relationships. More frequently, relationships of the oils are determined, but samples of the sources
of the oils are not available for oil-source correlation.
 Correlation
Input Characteristics
Inversion 4

Analytical Protocol
C, - C, Hydrocarbons C,- C, Hydrocarbons
Isomer Distribution Gas Chromatography (G C) Isomer Distribution
a l 3 C of Individual
- -
Gas Chromatography / Isotope-Ratio
Compounds

Mass Spectrometry (G C / IRMS) ’I

Cls+ Extract Cls+ Fraction
Saturates, Aromatics, Saturates, Aromatics,
Resins & Asphaltenes Resins & Asphaltenes

C,, + Saturates C,, + Saturates

n-Paraffins
iso-Paraffins Chromatography (PIN) iso-Paraffins
cyclo-Paraffins cyclo-Paraffins
(Biomarkers & a l 3 C of (Biomarkers & a l3 C of
Individual Compounds) Individual Compounds)
I G C / M S & G C /IRMS I
7 1 IRMS I
Natural Gas
I
Organic Microscopy (R, ,TAI, etc.)
Thermal Maturity (Ro) r,I a l 3 C & a D of C,, C,, etc.
Isotope-Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS)

FIGURE 2 - Analytical protocol for geochemical correlation and inversion.

 Hypothetical Reaction of Adiantone
to Bisnorhopane

Reduction
111+

Adiantone

Rearr.
-Methyl
H

t
Reduction
Seiferl et al., 1978

FIGURE 3 ~ Hypothetical reaction of the conversion of the biochemical "adiantone" to the biomarker
"bisnorhopane". The precursor is geologically unstable. The product is geologically stable and
retains much of the specific structure and stereochemistry of the precursor.
 eochemical Inversion:
Inference of Oil Provenance via
Deconvolution of Oil Composition

Organic Matter
Algae
Bacteria
Higher Plants ~

Source Depositional Environment

Manne
Lacustrine
Hypersaline
Subhur Reducing
Source Lithology
Clastic
Carbonate 1
Source Maturitv - A
U
/
Depth
/ /
’
Distance
Carrier Bed?
FIGURE 4 - Concept of geochemical inversion. In the absence of source samples for comparison to an
oil, the composition o f the oil can be used to infer specific characteristics of the source.
Factors Contro11in g the Geochem i ca1 C11 aract er
of Reservoired Petroleum
Organic Input

GAS
BPI Gravity
Modified from Bailey et al., 1973

FIGURE 5 - Post-emplacement factors influencing the chemical character of reservoired petroleum.

 Expected n-Paraffin Distributions Regional Variation in n-Paraffin
from Various Precursors Composition of North Sea Oils
Northwest Southeast
I

14/19-4 14/20-1 15/16-1 15/17-1 15129-2

- -1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Increasing Higher Plant

n-Paraffin Chain Length (Carbon Number) Kerogen in Source Rocks + Bissada, 1983
Limbach, 1975
-
FIGURE 6 - (a) Tnfluencc of organic matter input on the distribution of normal paraffins in oil. The waxes
contributed from higher-plant cuticle impart an increased abundance of the CZ2+paraffin
component in oils. (b) In this example from the North Sea, the. influence of higher plant
contribution is manifested in the regular increase in the CZ2+component of the oils in a
southeasterly direction paralleling the increased contribution of higher planet input to the source- Y
co
rock kerogen. w
184

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 185

0
 Isotopic Characterization of Crude Oils
-24

-25
-26
"Non-Marine" Oils /
-21
/ A

v)
- -28
u
.r(
c,

-29
larine" Oils -
E
3 -30
u-
Ccl
H -3 1
co
-32

-33

-34

-35
-36
-36 -35 -34 -33 -32 -31 -30 -29 -28 -21 -26 -25 -24
Template after Sofer,1984
Data From Texaco Files
6 l 3 C (Saturates)

FIGURE 9 - Relationship of carbon isotopic compositions of

saturated and aromatic fractions of marine and non-
marine oils.
 Effects of Environments and CO Sources on
3 13C of Organic Matter & P&roleurn
-50 -40 -30 -10 0 +10
Dissolved CO, in Equilibrium with Atmosphere (Mook et al., 1974)
GO, In Photic Zones Overlying:
0 Well-circulated, Deepwater Basins (>500 m)
- (Ueuser, 1970)
* Restricted, Stratified, Shallow-water Basins (<200 m) Oana & Deevey, 1960:

Organic Carbon
Phytoplankton in Environments Overlying:
Deep-water Basins (Carbon Source: Atmospheric CO,) (Deuser, 1970)
Shdow-water Basins (Carbon Source: Organic CO,) ,Oana & Deevey, 1960

Kerogen:
* Sapropellic (Algal-Bacterial)
" h-Amorphous" (Deep-water Facies) (Lewan, 1986)
I'l-Amorphous" (Shallow-water Facies) (Lewan, 1986)

Petroleum :
Is0topically Heavy (Texaco Files)
Isotopically Light (Texaco Files:

10 0 +10

FJGURg 10 - Effect of water depth and C O , source o n the carbon i\otopic composition of organic matter and petroleum.
188

~E ~g
I.~ Lg
OE B o¢
6a ~ 6a

L~ L~

~J

2©
91. a ~ 91- :

0
_C

~J
~J

~°°°~~ic~e~__~,,~, o eouepunqvU~
o eA!1.elel:l
~ o

o~
E =
dj

0£ 1.8

>

E_o

z-~
" ~: & i

9L

. . . . . . . . .
1

eouepunqv eAqeleEI
 INVERSION TO OIL AGE
ORDOVICIAN OILS IN WEST TEXAS

NON-ORDOVICIAN SOURCED OIL ORDOVICIAN SOURCED OIL

Carbon Isotope Value = -30.1 Carbon Isotope Value = -34.9

L I 1
FIGURE 12 - CI5+ chromatograms of an Ordovician and a post-Silurian oil. The Ordovician oil contains
virtually no pristane, phytane or normal paraffins beyond Cz0 and displays a very strong odd
carbon predominance at CI7to CI9and an anomalously light whole-oil isotopic composition.
190

Biomarker s
ISOPRJ3NOIDS

Pristane Phytane

Tricyclic Pentacyclic

EXAMPLES

FIGURE I3 - Chemical structures of important hydrocarbon biomarker

compounds.
191
 - Intensity -+- - Intensity I-) - Intensity -+
I I I I I I I I I I
* I I I I I
n

c27 Bas

L c27 IkrR

C20 NORHOPANE

C30 HOPANE

C 2 1 TRI C2)

m
X
iil C23 TRI
2
P
0
I
%
z
m
0

7 8
C24 TETR,
ElI I 12
r”’”“
FIGURE 15 I Saturate hydrocarbon GC-MS traces (mass fragmentograms) of a Jurassic Smackover crude oil
from Mississippi showing the relative abundances of biomarkers in the tricyclic terpane (m/z
191), the peritacyclic terpane (m/z 191) and the sterane (m/z 217) families.
Relationship Between Maturation of Source Rock
& a13C Composition of Methane
in Reservoired Hydrocarbons
-55

-50
A Val VerdePelaware

-45 X Canadian Arctic

-40

-35

_ _
-30
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0

StaN, 1977

FIGURE 16 - Relationship of isotopic composition of reservoired methane

to thermal maturity of its source-rock kerogen.
 Inferring Maturation of Source Rocks
from d13CComposition of Ethane and Propane
in Reservoired Hydrocarbons
-20

-25

-30

u -35
$3
m
-40
-45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20
a 13C Ethane (%o)
Faber, 1987

FIGURE 17 - Relationship of isotopic compositions of reservoired

ethane and propane to thermal maturity o f its
source-rock kerogen.
 Identification of Source Beds
by Isotopic A alysis of Reservoired Methane
Baltimore Canyon, USA
I I I I I I I I I I-[- unconsolidated 41
- 50 - 5 -

6 -

7 -

8 -

9 -
-30 -
10 -
I I l l I I I I
.5 .6 .7 .8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 11 -
Vitrinite Reflectance, R o(%) 12 -

13 -

14 -
Relationship of 813 C of Methane to the
15 -
Vitrinite Reflectance of its parent source
16
rock (after Stahl et al, 1977) .3 5 3
R O(%)

Bissada , 1978

FIGURE 18 - Illustration of the process of inversion of methane isotopic data to source-rock maturity and
subsequent inferencing of source identity within the stratigraphic sequence.
196
 Robison and Bissada, 1992
FIGURE 20. Inferred oil migration pathway in the Zhu 1 Depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea. Regular variations in the
API gravities, Pristaneh-C,, ratios and n-paraffin patterns, in otherwise identical crude oils, are correlated to relative
proximities to the top of the biological sterility boundary (160°F/71"C). This distriburion pattern and the constraint placed ,
by the basin geometry and the depth of the hydrocarbon generation window point to sourcing from the unpenetrated synrift r-
c
section in the northwest. -1
 Inference of Mixed
Sourcing Based on
Oil Composition

FIGURE 21 - Structural and geometric constraints on inferring discrete and mixed sourcing from troughs to
hinge margins (platforms) and interference ridges (low-relief accommodation zones) in rift-
basin settings.
 Inferring Generative-Basin Distribution from
Systematics of Oil and Gas Distribution

e Oil CharacteristicsInvert to a Lacustrine, Algal Source Facies

* Hydrocarbon Distribution Conforms to Seismicly-delineated,

Deep, Generative Troughs with Probable Lacustrine Facies

Oil vs. Condensate vs. Gas Controlled by Distance from Edge

of Delineated Troughs; Modified by Migration Segregation

LEGEND
Inferred / Seismicly verified Troughs

Oil

Oil & Gas

& Gas With Oil Show

Gas

FIGURE 22 - Inferring source distribution from regional analysis of hydrocarbon character and distribution.