FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUID FLOW

DISCHARGE OR FLOW RATE DISCHARGE (ALSO CALLED FLOW

RATE)
THE AMOUNT OF FLUID PASSING A SECTION OF A STREAM IN
UNIT TIME IS CALLED THE DISCHARGE. IF U IS THE MEAN
VELOCITY AND A IS THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, THE
DISCHARGE Q IS DEFINED BY Q AU WHICH IS KNOWN AS
VOLUME FLOW RATE. DISCHARGE IS ALSO EXPRESSED AS
MASS FLOW RATE AND WEIGHT FLOW RATE.
VOLUME FLOW RATE, Q = AV
MASS FLOW RATE, M= PQ
WEIGHT FLOW RATE, W=Q
WHERE:
Q = DISCHARGE IN M³/SEC OR FT³/SEC
A = CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF FLOW IN M³ OR FT²
V = MEAN VELOCITY OF FLOW IN M/SEC OR FT/SEC MASS
DENSITY OF FLUID IN KG/M³ OR SLUGS/FT³
Y = UNIT WEIGHT OF FLUID IN N/M³ OR LB/FT

TYPES OF FLOW
DEPENDING UPON fLUID PROPERTIES
➢ IDEAL AND REAL FLOW
➢ COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
➢ INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
➢ IN THIS FLUID, THE
COMPRESSIBLE DENSITY OF THE FLOWING
FLOW
FLUID IS CONSTANT DURING THE PROCESS OF
FLOW
 IN THIS FLUID, THE DENSITY OF FLUID DOES NOT
REMAIN CONSTANT DURING THE PROCESS OF FLOW. IN
OTHER WORDS, THE DENSITY OF THE FLUID CHANGES
FROM POINT TO POINT IN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW.

TYPES OF FLOW
DEPENDING UPON PROPERTIES OF flOW
➢ LAMINAR AND TURBULENT flOW
➢ STEADY AND UNSTEADY flOW
➢ UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM flOW
➢ ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL flOW
➢ ONE, TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL flOW

UNIFORM FLOW AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW

 UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM
FLOW
•UNIFORM FLOW: IT IS THE FLOW
IN WHICH CONDITIONS OF FLOW
REMAINS CONSTANT FROM
SECTION TO SECTION.

•NON-UNIFORM FLOW: IT IS THE

FLOW IN WHICH CONDITIONS OF
FLOW DOES NOT REMAIN
CONSTANT FROM SECTION TO
SECTION.
•E.G., CONSTANT DISCHARGE
THROUGH VARIABLE DIAMETER
PIPE.ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL
FLOWS

• IRROTATIONAL FLOW - IN WHICH THE

FLUID PARTICLES WHILE FLOWING
ALONG STEAM LINES, DO NOT ROTATE
ABOUT THEIR OWN AXIS
• ROTATIONAL FLOW - IN WHICH THE
FLUID PARTICLES WHILE FLOWING ALONG
STREAM LINES, ALSO ROTATE ABOUT
THEIR OWN AXIS.

ONE, TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL

FLOWS

• HOW IS TWO-DIMENSIONAL: IF IT IS A
FORM OF FLUID WHERE THE FLOW VELOCITY AT EVERY POINT
IS PARALLEL TO A FIXED PLANE

• HOW IS THREE-DIMENSIONAL: IN THIS TYPE OF FLOW, THE

VELOCITY AND PRESSURE OF THE FLUID CAN VARY NOT JUST
ACROSS A SURFACE BUT THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE VOLUME.

CONTINUOUS FLOW

BY THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, CONTINUOUS

FLOW OCCURS WHEN AT ANY TIME, THE DISCHARGE Q AT
EVERY SECTION OF THE STREAM IS THE SAME.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Q=
A1
V1
=
A2
V2
=A3V3= CONSTANT
FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
M= P1A1V1=P2A2V2=P3A3V3= CONSTANT
W= Y1A1V1=Y2A2V2=Y3A3V3

ENERGY AND HEAD OF FLOW

KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
ENERGY IS DEFINED AS ABILITY TO DO WORK. BOTH ENERGY
AND WORK ARE MEASURED IN NEWTON-METER (OR POUNDS-
TOOT IN ENGLISH). KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
ARE THE TWO COMMONLY RECOGNIZED FORMS OF ENERGY. IN
A FLOWING FLUID, POTENTIAL ENERGY MAY IN TURN BE
SUBDIVIDED INTO ENERGY DUE TO POSITION OR ELEVATION
ABOVE A GIVEN DATUM, AND ENERGY DUE TO PRESSURE IN
THE FLUID. HEAD IS THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY PER NEWTON
(OR PER POUND) OF FLUID.

KINETIC ENERGY AND VELOCITY HEAD KINETIC ENERGY IS THE

ABILITY OF A MASS TO DO WORK BY VIRTUE OF ITS VELOCITY.
THE KINETIC ENERGY OF A MASS M HAVING A VELOCITY V IS ½
MV2". SINCE M= W/G.
2
K.E= W
v
2g

VELOCITY HEAD OF CIRCULAR PIPESTHE VELOCITY HEAD OF

CIRCULAR PIPE OF DIAMETER D FLOWING FULL CAN BE FOUND
AS FOLLOWS.

K . E . v2
VELOCITY HEAD= =
W 2g

( )
2
2 Q 2
v Q
= A = 2
2g 2g A
2g
2
2 Q 2
v 16 Q
= 1 2 =
2g 2 g( π D ) 2 g π 2 D 2
4
2 2
v 8Q
= 2 4
2g π D

ELEVATION ENERGY AND ELEVATION HEAD

ELEVATION ENERGY = WZ
 Elevation energy
ELEVATION HEAD = =Z
W

PRESSURE ENERGY AND PRESSURE HEAD

IN CONNECTION TO THE ACTION OF GRAVITY, ELEVATION ENERGY IS

MANIFESTED IN A FLUID BY VIRTUE OF ITS POSITION OR ELEVATION
WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL DATUM PLANE.

A MASS OF FLUID ACQUIRES PRESSURE ENERGY WHEN IT IS IN

CONTACT WITH OTHER MASSES HAVING SOME FORM OF
ENERGY. PRESSURE ENERGY THEREFORE IS AN ENERGY
TRANSMITTED TO THE FLUID BY ANOTHER MASS THAT
POSSESSES SOME ENERGY.

p
PRESSURE ENERGY = W
y
Pressure energy p
PRESSURE HEAD = W
=
W

TOTAL ENERGY OF FLOW

TOTAL ENERGY = KINETIC ENERGY + PRESSURE ENERGY +
ELEVATION ENERGY TOTAL HEAD = VELOCITY HEAD +
THE TOTAL ENERGY OR HEAD IN A FLUID IS THE SUM OF
PRESSURE HEAD + ELEVATION
KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGIES. RECALL THAT POTENTIAL
IN SYMBOL,
ENERGIES ARETHE TOTAL HEAD
PRESSURE IS AND ELEVATION ENERGY.
ENERGY
2
v p
E= + +z
2g y
WHERE:
U = MEAN VELOCITY OF FLOW ( M/SEC IN SI AND FT/SEC IN
ENGLISH)
P = FLUID PRESSURE ( N/M2 OR PA IN SI AND LB/FT2 OR PSF IN
ENGLISH)
Z = POSITION OF FLUID ABOVE OR BELOW THE DATUM PLANE
( M IN SI AND FT IN ENGLISH)
G = GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION ( 9.81 M/SEC2 IN SI AND
32.2 FT/SEC2 IN ENGLISH)
Y = UNIT WEIGHT OF FLUID ( N/M3 IN SI AND LB/FT3 IN
ENGLISH)

POWER AND EFFICIENCY

POWER IS THE RATE OF DOING WORK PER UNIT OF TIME. FOR
A FLUID OF UNIT WEIGHT Ƴ (N/M^3) FLOWING AT THE RATE OF
Q (M^3/SEC) WITH A TOTAL ENERGY OF E(M), THE POWER
(WATT) IS
POWER = QYE

Output
EFFICIENCY = x 100 %
Input
NOTE:

1 HORSEPOWER (HP) = 746 WATTS

1 HORSEPOWER (HP) = 550 FT-LB/SEC
1 WATT = 1 N-M/SEC = 1 JOULE/SEC
BERNOULLI'S ENERGY THEOREM
APPLYING THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY TO FLUIDS
THAT MAY BE CONSIDERED INCOMPRESSIBLE, BERNOULLI'S
THEOREM MAY BE STATED AS FOLLOWS:

NEGLECTING HEAD LOST, THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY

PER UNIT WEIGHT IS CONSTANT AT ANY POINT IN THE PATH OF
FLOW.
BERNOULLI'S ENERGY EQUATIONS
ENERGY EQUATION NEGLECTING HEAD LOSS WITHOUT HEAD
LOSSES, THE TOTAL ENERGY AT POINT (1) ISEQUAL TO THE

TOTAL ENERGY AT POINT (2). NO HEAD LOST IS AN IDEAL

CONDITION LEADING TO THEORETICAL VALUES IN THE
RESULTS.

E1 = E 2
2 2
v1 p1 v2 p2
+ + z 1= + + z 2
2g y 2g y
ENERGY EQUATION CONSIDERING HEAD LOSS
THE ACTUAL VALUES CAN BE FOUND BY CONSIDERING HEAD
LOSSES IN THE COMPUTATION OF FLOW ENERGY.
E1 – HL1-2 = E2
2 2
v1 p1 v 2 p2
+ + z 1 – HL 1−2= + + z2
2g y 2g y

ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP

IN MOST CASES, PUMP IS USED TO RAISE WATER FROM LOWER
ELEVATION TO HIGHER ELEVATION. IN A MORE TECHNICAL
TERM, THE USE OF PUMP IS BASICALLY TO INCREASE THE
ENERGY OF FLOW. THE PUMP CONSUMES ELECTRICAL ENERGY
(PINPUT) AND DELIVERS FLOW ENERGY (POUTPUT).

E11 +
E + HA
HE –– HL
HL1-2 = E2
1-2 = E2

2 2
vv 11 + pp 11 + z + HE – HL 1−2= vv 22 + pp22 + z
2 2
+ + z 1+ HA – HL 1−2= 2 g + y + z22
22 gg yy 1 2g y

ENERGY EQUATION WITH TURBINETURBINES EXTRACT FLOW

ENERGY AND CONVERTED IT INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY
WHICH IN TURN CONVERTED INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)

ENERGY GRADE LINE IS ALWAYS ABOVE THE HYDRAULIC

GRADE LINE BY AN AMOUNT EQUAL TO THE VELOCITY HEAD.
THUS, THE DISTANCE OF ENERGY GRADIENT ABOVE THE
DATUM PLANE IS ALWAYS (U2/2G+P/Y + Z). ENERGY GRADE
LINE THEREFORE IS THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE
TOTAL ENERGY OF FLOW.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EGL
• EGL SLOPES DOWNWARD IN THE DIRECTION OF FLOW
AND WILL ONLY RISE WITH THE PRESENCE OF PUMP.
• THE VERTICAL DROP OF EGL BETWEEN TWO POINTS IS
THE HEAD LOST BETWEEN THOSE POINTS.
• EGL IS PARALLEL TO HGL FOR UNIFORM PIPE CROSS
SECTION.
• EGL IS ALWAYS ABOVE THE HGL BY V²/2G.
• NEGLECTING HEAD LOSS, EGL IS HORIZONTAL.

PROBLEM 1

THE WATER SURFACE SHOWN IN FIGURE IS 6 M ABOVE THE

DATUM. THE PIPE IS 150 MM IN DIAMETER AND THE TOTAL
LOSS OF HEAD BETWEEN POINT (1) IN THE WATER SURFACE
AND POINT (5) IN THE JET IS 3 M. DETERMINE THE VELOCITY
OF FLOW IN THE PIPE AND DISCHARGE Q.
 GIVEN: 2₁ = 6 M, D= 150 MM, H₁₁S=3 M
REQUIRED: V AND Q
SOLVE FOR THE VELOCITY HEAD AT POINT(5)
E 1-HL1-5 = E5

( )
2 2
v1 p1 v5 p5
+ + z 1 −HL1−5=( + + z 5)
2g y 2g y
2
vs
(0+0+6)-3 = ( +0+¿
2g
2
vs
=3m
2g

VELOCITY OF FLOW

V5 = √ 2 g (3) = √ 2(9.81)(3) = 7.672 M/SEC

SINCE THE DIAMETER OF THE WATER JET A POINT 5 IS EQUAL

TO THE DIAMETER OF THE PIPE.
VPIPE = V5
DISCHARGE

1 2 1 2
Q = AV = π d v= π 0.150 ( 7.672 )
4 4
Q = 0.1356M3/S = 135.6 LITER/S
NOTE: 1M3 = 100 LITERS
PROBLEM NO.2

A 300-MM PIPE IS CONNECTED BY A REDUCER TO A 100-MM

PIPE. SEE FIGURE 4-02. POINTS 1 AND 2 ARE AT THE SAME
ELEVATION, THE PRESSURE AT 1 IS 200 KPA. THE DISCHARGE Q
IS 30 LITERS PER SECOND FLOWING FROM 1 TO 2 AND THE
ENERGY LOST FROM 1 TO 2 IS EQUIVALENT TO 20 KPA.

A. COMPUTE THE PRESSURE AT 2 IF THE LIQUID IS WATER.

B. COMPUTE THE PRESSURE AT 2 IF THE LID IS OIL (SP GR =
0.80).
C. COMPUTE THE PRESSURE AT 2 IF THE LIQUID IS MOLASSES
BY CONTINUITY EQUATION THE DISCHARGE
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 30 LITERS/SEC = 0.03 M3/S
VELOCITY HEADS
Head loss
20
HL = m
y

2 2
v = 8Q
2 4
2g π gD
2
v1 (0.03¿¿ 2)
=8 2 ¿=
2g π (9.81)0.3 4
0.0092 M
2
v2 (0.03¿¿ 2)
=8 2 ¿=
2g π ( 9.81) 0.14
0. 7436 M

ENERGY EQUATION BETWEEN 1 AND 2

 E1 – HL = E2

( )
2 2
v p1
1 v2 p2
+ + z 1 −HL1=( + + z 2)
2g y 2g y

( )
200 20 p2
0.0092 m+ +0 − m=(0.7436+ +0)
y y y

p2 180
= – 0.7344 M
y y

PART A: THE LIQUID IS WATER

P2 = 180 - 0.7344GAMMA = 180 - 0.7344(9.81KN / (M ^ 3))

P2 = 172.79KPA

PART B: THE LIQUID IS OIL (S = 0.80)

P2 = 180 - 0.7344Y = 180 - 0.7344(0.8 * 9.81KN / (M ^ 3)) P2

= 174.24KPA

PART C: THE LIQUID IS OIL (S = 1.5)

P2 = 180 - 0.7344Y = 180 - 0.7344(1.5 * 9.81KN / (M ^ 3)) P2
= 169.19KPA

PROBLEM 3
THE 600-MM PIPE SHOWN IN FIGURE CONDUCTS WATER FROM
RESERVOIR A TO A PRESSURE TURBINE, WHICH DISCHARGES
THROUGH ANOTHER 600-MM

PIPE TAILRACE B. THE LOSS OF HEAD FROM A TO 1 IS 5

TIMES THE VELOCITY HEAD IN THE PIPE AND THE LOSS OF
HEAD FROM 2 TO B IS 0.2 TIMES THE VELOCITY HEAD IN THE
PIPE. IF THE DISCHARGE IS 700 L/S, WHAT POWER IS BEING
GIVEN UP BY THE WATER TO THE TURBINE AND WHAT ARE
PRESSURE HEADS AT 1 AND 2?
THE DISCHARGE BY CONTINUITY EQUATION
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 0.7M3/S
VELOCITY HEADS
2 2
v 8Q
= 2 4
2g π gD
SINCE THE SUNCTION PIPE IS THE
SAME AS DISCHARGE PIPE
V1 = V 2
2
v1 v (0.7¿ ¿2)
2
= 2 =8 2 ¿= 0.324 M
2g 2g π (9.81)0.6 4
HEAD LOSS
2
v
HLA-1=5 X 1 = 5(0.3124) = 0.0625
2g
ENERGY EQUATION FROM A TO B
EA-HLA-1 – HE – HL2-B = EB

( )
2 2
vA pA vB pB
+ + z A −H LA−1 – HE – H L 2−B=( + + z B )
2g y 2g y
POWER GIVEN UP BY WATER
(0+0+60) – 1.562TO
m THE
– HE TURBINE
– 0.0625 m =
(0+0+0)
HE = 58.3755 m
 P= QYHE = 0.7 M3/S (9810N/M3)(58.3755M) =

hp
P = 400,864.56 WATTS X 1 = 537.35 HP
746 watts
ENERGY EQUATION FROM A TO 1
EA-HLA-1= E1

( )
2 2
vA pA v 1 p1
+ + z A −H LA−1=( + + z 1 )
2g y 2g y
p1
(0+0+60) – 1.562 M = (0.3124 + +4.5)= 53.6256
y
ENERGY EQUATION FROM 2 TO B
E2-HL2-B= EB

( )
2 2
v2 p2 vb pb
+ + z A −H L 2−B=( + + z B )
2g y 2g y
p2
(0.3124 M + + 4.5M)- 0.0625M= (0+0+0)
y
p2
= -4.7499M
y
CHECKING
ENERGY EQUATION BETWEEN 1AND 2
E1- HE= E2

( )
2 2
v1 p1 v 2 p2
+ + z 1 −H E =( + + z2 )
2g y 2g y
(0.31 24M +53. 6256 M + 4.5 M) - 58.3755 M
= (0.3124 M - 4.7499+ 4.5M) 0.0625 M = 0.0625 M (CHECK)