MLS 403: HUMAN HISTOLOGY | LECTURE

HISTOLOGY LECTURE ON CYTOPLASM (PART 1)

PRELIMS | S.Y 2022 – 2023

OUTLINE ■ Cytosol - fluid/liquid portion

I. The Human Cell ○ The fluid where the
II. Cells organelles are
A. Cytoplasm suspended
B. Inclusions ● NUCLEUS
C. Lipofuscin ○ Largest organelle of the cell
D. Summary of Cellular Respiration
○ “Most of the time” situated at the center
Process
E. Glycogen of the cell
F. Hemosiderin ■ I use the phrase ”most of the
G. Lipids time” because in some cells of
H. Melanin the body, the NUCLEI are
III. Cell Membrane actually found at the periphery
A. Phospholipids but in most cells the nuclei are
B. Cholesterol
usually situated in the center
C. Lipid Raft
D. Proteins and most of the time they are
E. Freeze Fracture Model of the Cell drawn or represented with a
Membrane circular shape
F. Carbohydrates ● NUCLEOLUS
○ Another spherical structure found inside
the nucleus
I. THE HUMAN CELL

Human cells appear under the microscope

NOTE: In an actual picture or by viewing a specimen

● CELL MEMBRANE under the microscope, you are not supposed to expect
○ Boundary or the border of the human that you will see all of the structures present in the cell
cell
● CYTOPLASM In reality, this is how human cell appear under the
○ Space located inside the cell membrane microscope, especially if you are using the bright field
○ It is the area between the cell membrane type or compound type of microscope
and the nucleus
○ There are solid structures and fluid ● BRIGHTFIELD MICROSCOPE (COMPOUND
portions in the cytoplasm: MICROSCOPE)
■ Organelles - solid structures ○ most commonly used type of
○ Organelles - are microscope in Histology Laboratory
functional structures of
the cell
○ Act like organs in our
body
○ Smaller than the
organs in the body that
is why it is referred to
as the “organelles”
The red arrow is pointing to the: II. CELLS
1. Cell membrane
○ or also referred to as the plasma
membrane of the human cell
2. Cytoplasm
○ Organelles + Cytosol
○ Composed of both solid and liquid
portions (solid portion - organelles; liquid
portion - cytosol)
○ NOTE: In actual viewing through a ● Cells are composed of 3 BASIC PARTS:
microscope, you cannot actually 1. Cell membrane - or plasma membrane
appreciate the presence of the 2. Nucleus - largest organelle
organelles. What you only can see is an ○ Nucleolus - inside
empty space, but you can always 3. Cytoplasm - space between the cell
assume that there are organelles inside membrane and the nucleus
- for us to see them, we need to use a ○ Solid portion = Organelles
more sophisticated and more advanced ○ Fluid portion = Cytosol
type of microscope
3. Nucleus A. CYTOPLASM
○ The largest organelle inside a human ● CYTOPLASM = organelles + cytosol +
cell inclusion bodies
○ The size of the nucleus will make it easy ○ According to some books, it is not
to identify under the microscope enough that we should say that
4. Nucleolus cytoplasm is composed of both
○ Another spherical structure located organelles and cytosol because there is
inside the nucleus the third component to the cytoplasm
and we call them as the INCLUSIONS
or some books would refer to them as
the INCLUSION BODIES

B. INCLUSIONS

PARTS OF A CELL
1 ● Nucleolus
2 ● Nucleus
RED CIRCLES: Inlcusion Bodies
3 ● Ribosomes
4 ● Vesicle ● Not a functional organelle
5 ● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ● May or may not be present in the cell
(ESR) ● Most are stored nutrients or cell product
6 ● Golgi Apparatus ● Examples: Lipofuscin, lipid, glycogen, etc.
○ “Golgi Body”
7 ● Cytoskeleton Inclusions/Inclusion bodies are solid that it why it is
8 ● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum always compared to Organelles:
(SER) ● ORGANELLES
9 ● Mitochondrion ○ solid and functional components of a cell
10 ● Vacuole ● INCLUSION BODIES
11 ● Cytosol ○ solid and not functional
○ may or may not be present in the cell
12 ● Lysosome
○ At some point in the life of the cell, these
13 ● Centriole inclusion bodies might be present or
14 ● Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane) disappear in its cytoplasm
 ○ Because majority of these inclusion ○ Ex. Presence of injury causing some of
bodies are considered to be as “stored the organelles inside the cell become
nutrients” or “stored waste products” damaged
● Not considered as true organelles - With the damage, these
○ do not perform any function for the cell organelles are no longer
○ they are just only representing stored functioning.
nutrients or stored waste products - The cell will discard these
○ Ex. Stressed with your academics organelles and will be
resulted to overeating then there will be transported in the lysosome for
build up of fats in the body. it to be digested.
- Some of these fats will be ○ As the lysosome is breaking down lipids,
deposited in your hepatocytes proteins, carbohydrates, and damaged
or liver cells. Suddenly, the organelles, the accumulated waste
cytoplasm of the liver cell will products of the digestion will eventually
have a solid component that is become the LIPOFUSCIN
not previously present on it and
that solid portion now will be
referred to as inclusion or
inclusion body.
- But if you decide to start to
lose weight because you think
you're already fat, as you are
losing weight, your body will be
actually breaking down stored
fats. So what will happen, the
fat inclusion bodies stored in
your hepatocytes will
Lipofuscin under a microscope (H and E staining)
disappear
● Inclusion body: LIPOFUSCIN
C. LIPOFUSCIN ○ Yellow-brown pigment (under the
microscope especially with H and E
staining)
○ composed of residues of lysosomal
digestion
■ As the cell ages, it has
metabolized a lot of
substances. As with the
metabolism of the substances,
the cell has already
accumulated a lot of waste
products. Some of the waste
products become lipofuscin
● LYSOSOME
○ Accumulates through the years
○ Organelle situated in the center =
■ somehow give the pathologist
LYSOSOME
or the one doing the
○ Unique - organelle that contains
examination of the histology
digestive enzymes
slide the idea of how old the
- most likely involved in
cells that the person is looking
intracellular digestion
at
● NOTE: Cells in the body can breakdown fats,
○ “wear and tear” pigment
lipids, and carbohydrates and their digestion
■ represents the age of the cell
takes place in the lysosome
■ = cellular senescence or aging
● LYSOSOME
○ Remember that lysosome does not only
digest fats, lipids, and carbohydrates
● Cell A is older than cell B because cell A has a
higher amount of lipofuscin. ● Old studies have shown that neurons cannot
regenerate.
● Recent researches are suggesting that neurons
can regenerate. It’s just that the regeneration is
too slow, that they cannot replace the damaged
neurons in time.
○ Most likely a patient with stroke will die
even before the neurons can regenerate
themselves.

● NOTE: If the cell with the lipofuscin will undergo ● Since neurons cannot undergo mitosis as fast as
mitosis, the two daughter cells will no longer the other cells in the body, therefore, they can
contain the lipofuscin. accumulate lipofuscin. Same as with skeletal
○ As the cell undergoes mitosis, the muscles and cardiac muscles.
lipofuscin will actually disappear. ● People who had acute myocardial infarction or
heart attack are advised not to engage in
● Lipofuscin tends to accumulate in cells that are strenuous activities anymore because they have
not actively undergoing mitosis. already lost some of their cardiac muscles.
○ Ex. Once we lose our neurons in a ○ If they continue to engage in strenuous
stroke, we cannot replace them activities, they will be killing the
anymore. remaining healthy cardiac muscles.
■ Neurons have a limited capacity
to multiply. LIPOFUSCIN IN BRAIN
■ Neurons have the chance to
accumulate lipofuscin since it
cannot undergo mitosis.
○ When we have an injury in our skin, the
fibroblasts and keratinocytes in there
will actually multiply in number just to
replace the damaged tissue.
■ Fibroblasts and keratinocytes in
the skin have unlimited capacity
to multiply. Neurons that were taken from the brain
■ Fibroblasts and keratinocytes
will lose their lipofuscin because ● NUCLEI
they can undergo mitosis. ○ Presence of nucleolus inside
● CYTOPLASM
● Present in postmitotic cells such as nerve, ○ Presence of yellowish-brown pigment
skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles are the lipofuscin pigment
○ Lipofuscin is best demonstrated in
organs or cells that are not anymore
actively undergoing mitosis.
A picture of neurons taken from the peripheral nervous III. KREBS CYCLE
system ○ 2 ACETYL CoA participates in the Krebs
Cycle
LIPOFUSCIN IN CARDIAC MUSCLE ○ Products of the Krebs Cycle will proceed
to the electron transfer chain
○ Products: 6 NADH and 2 FADH2
IV. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
○ 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 Will be
transported to the inner mitochondrial
membrane for the electron transport
chain

● NOTE: There are times in our lives that we tend

to overeat. Overeating means we supply our
body with a higher number (above what is
required) of glucose by the body but the body
has a way of adapting to the increased level of
glucose.

● Cardiac Muscles are striated

● In the Cytoplasm of the muscle fibers of the
cardiac muscles, there are brown pigments that
represent lipofuscin.
○ Lipofuscin is best demonstrated in
organs and cells that are no longer
actively dividing.
● LIPOFUSCIN CAN BE FOUND IN CELLS THAT
ARE NO LONGER ACTIVE IN MITOSIS
● In cases wherein there is excess glucose:
D. SUMMARY OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION ○ The INSULIN will facilitate the storage of
PROCESS glucose.
■ The body has its way of
adapting to the presence of
excess glucose
■ The body will not just allow that
these glucose will be thrown in
to the urine and discarded.
○ The body will store GLUCOSE.
■ GLYCOGEN - storage form of
Glucose
○ The excess glucose will be transported
by Insulin to the muscle and the liver so
they can now be stored in the form of
Glycogen.
■ In a Hepatocyte (the cell of the
● Process of Converting GLUCOSE to ATP liver), you can see the
I. GLYCOLYSIS appearance of an inclusion
○ As the glucose enters the cell, the body. That inclusion body will
glucose undergoes glycolysis in the represent the stored glucose in
cytoplasm the form of Glycogen.
○ Product: 2 PYRUVATE molecule
II. PYRUVATE PROCESSING E. GLYCOGEN
○ Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and it
will be converted to Acetyl CoA ● GLYCOGEN
○ Product: 2 ACETYL CoA ○ Storage form of glucose
 ○ Stored in skeletal muscles and liver
○ NOT EASILY STAINED with
Hematoxylin and Eosin
■ Will not appear either as blue or
red
■ Will appear as clear areas
within the cytoplasm
○ Requires special stain such as periodic
acid Schiff (Red in Color)

Hepatocyte of someone who had eaten 2 hours ago

● Clear areas appear bigger.

● Someone who had eaten two hours ago so most
likely this person had excess glucose in their
blood. The excess glucose was stored as
glycogen in their liver.
A picture of a hepatocyte under the microscope

● HEPATOCYTES
○ Active cells of the liver
● You can see the blue colored nucleus that is
stained by hematoxylin and this nucleus is
surrounded by red colored cytoplasm.
● CYTOPLASM
○ Some areas are not red in color and
appear as clear areas
○ The clear areas are the stored
glycogen since they are not easily
stained with H and E. Side-to-side comparison of the two different hepatocytes

Picture of a hepatocyte arrangement surrounding a

central vein
Hepatocyte of someone who fasted overnight
● CENTRAL VEIN
● Blue colored nuclei in the center of the cell ○ The “large hole” in the center
surrounded by clear areas that represent the ○ Appreciate how the hepatocytes are
glycogen. arranged around the central vein.
● In the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes, there are
presence of clear areas and these clear areas
are actually the glycogen.
○ they appear clear because they are not
easily stained by Hematoxylin and Eosin
 ● PERIODIC ACID SCHIFF
○ Special stain to demonstrate that these
clear areas are really glycogen and not
fat
○ Will make the glycogen appear red

Photo of the epithelium of the human skin

● HUMAN SKIN
○ The Cytoplasm is deeply red because it
The same hepatocyte picture now stained with periodic
is stained with Eosin.
acid schiff

● Hepatocytes are still surrounding the central vein

● The areas that used to be clear in the previous
photo now appears red
○ Because this liver sample is stained with
periodic acid schiff that makes the
glycogen inclusions appear red.
○ Confirms that the clear areas on the
previous picture are really glycogen.

GLYCOGEN IN VAGINA
Photo of the lining epithelium of the vagina

● VAGINA
○ Focusing on the cytoplasm of the cell,
you can see clear areas.
■ Those clear areas actually
represent glycogen inclusion
bodies in the lining epithelium of
the vagina.
■ “That’s why whenever I see
stratified squamous epithelium
● Glycogen is also present in the cytoplasm of the specimens in the histology
cells of the lining epithelium of the vagina. laboratory, and once I see clear
● NOTE: Glycogen is present in the vagina not areas of the cytoplasm, I will
because we want to store glucose in the vagina know that the specimen I’m
○ The glycogen in the vagina will serve viewing is from the vagina.”
another purpose and it’s not for storage
of energy.

Another photo of the lining of the vagina

● The lining epithelium is Stratified squamous, ● Often results from bleeding when red cells and
nonkeratinized hemoglobin are degraded by macrophages
● The cells in the lining epithelium of the vagina ○ When red blood cells are destroyed,
have clear areas (glycogen) within their hemoglobin breaks down, after the
cytoplasm. degradation the end product will be the
brown pigments called hemosiderin
● Alveolar macrophage if there is hemorrhages in
the alveoli
● Appears as brown granules (appears as brown
pigments)

● NOTE: Glycogen present in the cytoplasm of the

cells of the lining epithelium of the vagina is
acted upon by the bacteria present in the vagina Photo of the cut section of the spleen
○ This bacteria is the normal flora of the
vagina or a normally present bacteria in ● SPLEEN
the body called Lactobacillus ○ Composed of the white pulp (white
Acidophilus. arrow) and red pulp (red arrow)
■ Lactobacillus acidophilus will ● White pulp
convert the glycogen into lactic ○ rich in lymphocytes (white blood cells)
acid thereby making the hence the name
environment inside the vagina ○ appears to be nodular or rounded in
acidic shape
■ The acidity will not promote the ● Red pulp
growth of microorganisms ○ red colored areas that surrounds the
thereby protecting the vagina white pulp
from infection ○ It is where old or damaged red blood
■ Semen must be alkaline or else cells is destroyed
the sperm cells will be killed by ○ Expect that hemosiderin can be found
the lactic acid in the vagina within the red pulp
■ Lactacyd, a female vaginal
wash is used to maintain the
acidity in the vagina to prevent
infection.

● Glycogen in the vagina is not a stored form, it's

not for the purpose of storing glucose for future
energy use. It's actually for the formation of lactic
acid.
Photo of spleen under microscope
F. HEMOSIDERIN
● Indigestible residue of hemoglobin
● Can be normally found in the red pulp of the
spleen
○ The graveyard for red cells is the spleen.
○ If the red cells are damaged or is more
than 120 days old, they are destroyed in
the spleen (particularly in the red pulp of
the spleen)
● White pulp
○ Clearly shows the nodular pattern
● Red pulp
○ Splenic sinuses
■ spaces within the red pulp
where red cells flow
■ These spaces are too small that
red blood cells need to be
flexible to squeeze in these
spaces
■ Old or damaged cells will
typically lose their flexibility Photo of the terminal portion of the lungs
hence they will be trapped
○ Splenic cords ● Alveoli
■ When trapped inside the ○ Terminal portion of the lungs
sinuses, the old and damaged ○ Typically seen like clusters of grape fruit
cells are eaten by macrophages ○ Group of circles situated beside each
■ The splenic cords are other
composed of macrophages
■ The macrophages present in
the splenic cords are just
waiting for trapped cells in the
sinuses
■ After red blood cells are eaten
and disposed by the
macrophages, the occurrence
of hemosiderin will happen

Photo of alveoli under the microscope

Photo of the red pulp section of the spleen

● The macrophage seen with a brown cytoplasm Photo of alveoli under the microscope
means that it has already digested an old or (with mycobacterium tuberculosis)
damaged red blood cell therefore producing
hemosiderin ● Mycobacterium tuberculosis
○ This disease causes destruction of the
● HEMOSIDERIN can also be found within walls of the alveoli which then causes
hemorrhaging areas in the body bleeding
○ The presence of red blood cells in this
area causes breathing problems for the
patients hence the body will find a way
to remove these red blood cells to
restore normal gas exchange of the
lungs
 Photo of a normal alveoli Photo of a cut section within the lungs
● Within the normal alveoli, the alveolar spaces (massive hemorrhage)
contains macrophages
● These macrophages will be the one ingesting red ● The presence of the brown pigments in the
blood cells in turn clearing them when the cytoplasm of the alveolar macrophages shows us
alveolar space will be filled by red cells that this area suffered from a hemorrhage and
the macrophages cleared the red cells ingesting
them and turning them into hemosiderin
● This then proves that hemosiderin can also be
found in areas suffering from hemorrhage or
internal bleeding

● HEMOSIDERIN CAN BE FOUND IN PARTS OF

THE BODY WHERE THERE IS HEMORRHAGE
OR IF THERE IS A DESTRUCTION OF RED
BLOOD CELLS

Photo of a macrophage within a hemorrhage G. LIPIDS

● In this picture, the cytoplasmic process of the ● Adipose cells

macrophage is enveloping the red cell ○ Most common site where these fats are
● The red cell will eventually be ingested and turn deposited
into hemosiderin ● Accumulates through time in adipocytes,
displacing all organelles and nucleus into
periphery
● Extracted by solvents during tissue preparation,
this appears “hole in the cytoplasm”
○ The holes are previously occupied by
fats.

Photo of a cell that shows adipose tissues

● In the photo, the ones with a clear cytoplasm are
adipose cells
○ The clear portions in these cells are the
Photos of a cut section within the lungs fats that have been accumulated
(mild hemorrhage) through time
 ● MELANIN
○ Found on the basal layer of the
epidermis
○ Pigment responsible for the brown color
Photos shows the accumulation of fats through time of the skin
○ Lined by stratified squamous keratinized
● As time progresses, the fats within the cell will epithelium
continue to accumulate and will grow which will ○ At the base of the epithelium, the brown
cause the nuclei to be displaced towards the pigments that can be seen are the
periphery. melanin pigments.
● As the fats become bigger, it will then cause the ● NOTE: Lipofuscin and hemosiderin are both
nuclei to be flattened brown in color so it's also very important that you
should be able to differentiate Lipofuscin and
hemosiderin from melanin. But, melanin is easy
to identify as long as you know it's the skin, as
long as you see that there's stratified squamous
keratinized epithelium, anything that is brown in
color associated with it will most likely be
melanin.

Photo of adipose cells

● ADIPOSE TISSUE
○ Majority of these cells have flattened
nuclei and their nuclei are not found in
the center of the cell.
○ The nuclei are found at the periphery
Another photo of the skin lining epithelium
because they were displaced by the
presence of the fat inclusion body.
● SKIN
○ Stratified squamous keratinized
epithelium
○ Presence of brown pigments on the
base of the lining epithelium.
■ Brown pigments - MELANIN
pigments
● NOTE: “I want you all to review where can you
find lipofuscin and hemosiderin because I might
be using photos in our quizzes and I will be
Another photo of Adipose Cells asking you to identify the inclusion body “

● Presence of fats in the center with the peripheral III. CELL MEMBRANE
flattened nuclei.

H. MELANIN
 ● COMPONENTS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
● CELL MEMBRANE I. PHOSPHOLIPID
○ One of the components of the cell
○ Outermost boundary (border) of the cell
○ Regulates passage (entry & exit) of
molecules and substances in and out of
the cell
○ The cell membranes of almost all
organisms are referred to as a BILIPID
LAYER
■ BILIPID - 2 layers of Lipid ○Pointed by the blue arrow
○The ones that look like balloons
○The most abundant component of the
cell membrane
II. CHOLESTEROL

○ Pointed by the yellow arrow

○ The yellow colored structure inserted
among the phospholipids
● WHITE ARROW
○ Pointing on one layer of the cell III. PROTEIN
membrane

● YELLOW ARROW
○ Pointing to another layer of the cell
membrane
● The WHITE and YELLOW arrows indicate that
the cell membrane has two layers
○ Majority of the components of these
layers are LIPIDS

○Pointed by the pink arrow

○Pink colored structure that looks like a
safeguard soap
○ Large appearing structures of the cell
membrane
IV. CARBOHYDRATE

Photo of a good representation of the human cell

membrane
● CELL MEMBRANE
○ Pointed by the green arrow
○ 2 layers of fats ○ Always displayed outside the membrane
○ Bilipid
● BILIPID
A. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
○ 2 layers of Phospholipids
● PHOSPHOLIPIDS ● HYDROPHOBIC: non-polar, water repelling fatty
○ Makes up the majority of the bilipid layer acids
of the cell membrane ● HYDROPHILIC: polar, water- attracting
● 2 Layers of Phospholipids phosphate head group
○ HEAD
HOW PHOSPHOLIPIDS ARE ARRANGED IN THE
BILIPID LAYER

■ The rounded portion of the

phospholipids.
■ Composed of PHOSPHATE.
■ Phosphate is highly
HYDROPHILIC, therefore, it will
interact with water. ● Since there is water outside the cell and the
○ TAILS cytosol/cytoplasm within the cell also contains
water. Therefore the phospholipids are arranged
in such a way that the hydrophilic portions are
the ones facing the water.

■ 2 tails composed of FATTY

ACIDS
■ Highly HYDROPHOBIC, repels
water ● That is why in this illustration, the phosphate
● Phospholipid has both hydrophilic and heads of the phospholipids are directed towards
hydrophobic portions. water, while the fatty acids, since they are
● NOTE: A substance with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic, are situated in the center and
hydrophobic portions is called AMPHIPATHIC. hidden from water
DO YOU KNOW THAT PHOSPHOLIPIDS TEND TO
MIGRATE FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER?
 will follow, krebs cycle and electron
transport chain

WHAT IF THE MEMBRANE IS HIGHLY FLUID?

● Since fluid level is high, phospholipids have their
way to migrate into different sites in the cell
membrane.

● This photo proves that phospholipids tend to

migrate. Whenever insulin is present, the yellow
colored receptors which are insulin receptors
react and bind to proteins which then causes the
blue colored glucose transporter to open which
then lets glucose enter the cells
○ It is common knowledge that glucose will ● There's a tendency that phospholipids will also
never enter a human cell without the drag along with them the components found
presence of insulin. If insulin is absent beside them causing changes in location of the
glucose will remain in the blood which other parts of the cell membrane.
causes hyperglycemia
B. CHOLESTEROL
● In order to keep the glucose transporter in place
in order for the glucose to enter it freely, the role
of cholesterol is highly important.

● Cholesterol has a hydrophobic ring and

hydrophilic hydroxyl group

● The phospholipids (blue colored phosphate

heads and black colored fatty acid tail) have
cholesterol (yellow colored molecules) inserted in
between them.
○ The reason cholesterol is present in
between the phospholipids is to restrict
their movement
○ Hence if the the phospholipids is in
place, all the other parts accompanying
it also stays in place

Photos show the lipid bilayer (blue lines), glucose

transporter (yellow tube) and glucose (blue circle) action

● Due to the insulin action, the transporter opens

up allowing glucose to enter the cell.
○ Now there is glucose in the cytoplasm
that will undergo glycolysis so that it will
be converted into pyruvate and the rest
 ● Here, the presence of cholesterol keeps the
glucose receptor from moving

● The squared part of the cholesterol is the C. LIPID RAFT

hydrophobic ring of the cholesterol (called
perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene ring)

● Lipid raft
○ Localized region within the plasma
membrane that contains high levels of
cholesterol and variety of peripheral
and integral proteins
○ Area is limited in fluidity thus restricting
● The hydroxyl group found in the terminal portion movement of the proteins which may be
of the cholesterol is hydrophilic involved in cell signaling processes
● Therefore both hydrophobic and hydrophilic ○ Lipid raft has an abundant level of
portions are present in the cholesterol. proteins in the cell membrane
Therefore cholesterol behaves like that of ○ Even with the abundance of proteins it is
phospholipids and both are considered to be not called the protein raft because it is
amphipathic. seen that cholesterol is also present
which are the ones restricting the
movement of the proteins hence called
lipid raft

Photo emphasizing phospholipids

● Cholesterol has a hydrophobic ring and a
hydrophilic hydroxyl group
● Inserted among closely packed phospholipids
restricting their movements and thus modulating
fluidity and movement of membrane components
● The cholesterol are arranged in the cell
membrane wherein the hydroxyl group is located
at the area where phosphate heads are seen
Photo emphasizing proteins
since both are hydrophilic while mixed along the
fatty acid tail is the four fused ring of the
cholesterol since both are hydrophobic
 Photo emphasizing carbohydrates
● The red colored receptor activated the blue
colored protein

Photo emphasizing cholesterol

● There are chemicals that can make cells react by

binding to the receptor
● Chemicals bound to the receptor are composed ● The blue colored protein activated other proteins
of several proteins. These proteins are inside the cell
aggregated on one area of the cell so that they ● The cell will now react to the presence of the
can form one receptor lavender colored chemicals present outside it
● One of the importance of lipid rafts for receptor to ● If Lipid Raft is not present or Cholesterol is not
be formed, the proteins must be close to each inserted among phospholipids, the red colored
other and they should not be moving apart from receptor and blue colored protein will not be kept
each other in place thereby they cannot interact
● The receptor also interacted with the protein that ● Even if the lavender colored molecules are
is located within the vicinity of the lipid raft present outside the cell, the cell will not respond
● For the main receptor, to activate the yellow- to their presence
green colored protein and for the cell to react,
this receptor, and yellow-green protein should be
concentrated on one area of the cell and that is
the purpose of having a lipid raft

● Lipid Rafts as Signaling platforms

○ G-coupled protein composed of 7
transmembrane proteins and alpha, beta
and gamma protein subunits
● The lavender colored chemicals are supposed to ○ Ligands bind with the G-coupled
stimulate this cell. It activated the receptor which receptor which later cause the activation
is composed of group of proteins of the alpha, beta and gamma subunits
 Red lines represents the right and left side of the cell
indicating it as a single cell and the Blue circles are the
peripheral proteins
● Peripheral proteins only interact with only one of
the layers of the cell membrane

● Signal transduction in lipid rafts occurs more

rapidly since the proteins are found in proximity
to each other
○ Proteins are bounded in close proximity
due to the presence of cholesterol which ● The peripheral proteins interact with each other
restricts their movements and tend to pull each other
● As the peripheral proteins pull each other, they
also cause the cell membrane to be pulled
D. PROTEINS
towards the center

● This is then the reason why red blood cells are

described to have a biconcave shape
● The depression seen in the photo is caused by
the interactions of the peripheral proteins
● Therefore it can be concluded that the peripheral
proteins can affect the shape of the cell

● Proteins can be divided into:

○ Integral (transmembrane) proteins
■ Directly incorporated into the
cell membrane
■ Channels, carriers and
transporters
○ Peripheral proteins
■ Exhibits looser association with
one of the membranes ● Peripheral proteins of the cell membrane of the
■ Easily extracted from the red cell
membrane ○ Ankyrin
■ Responsible for the shape of ○ Actin
the cell and transport of the ○ Spectrin
substances in the cell ■ The peripheral protein that
■ These proteins may not act as makes ankyrin and actin
transporters, channels, or interact with each other
carriers but they can be ■ The ankyrin and actin pulls
responsible for the maintenance each other by the spectrin
of the shape of the cell causing the biconcave shape
of the red cell
 a. The force will cause the
membrane to be fractured
b. Most of the time, the fracture is
created in the hydrophobic
portion (fatty acid portions of
the phospholipid) of the cell
membrane.
3. The membrane will be separated into
● Hereditary Spherocytosis
two layers:
○ Absence of spectrin
a. Extracellular layer (outer part
○ These people are born with no gene =
of the cell)
spectrin
b. Cytoplasmic (Intracellular)
○ The absence of spectrin causes the
layer; portion of the membrane
ankyrin and actin to not interact with
closer to the cytoplasm
each other thereby the red cell cannot
maintain the biconcave shape of the red
NOTE: Freeze fracture method would require the cell be
blood cell
viewed under electron microscope
○ The red blood cells will appear to be
spherical in shape
● When the scientists examined the extracellular
○ With a spherical shaped red blood cell, it
layer and cytoplasmic (intracellular) layer, they
will be harder for it to squeeze into
saw PROTRUSIONS
smaller capillaries
○ These protrusions are caused by the
○ The red blood cells of people with
presence of the integral proteins.
Hereditary Spherocytosis will be
○ For every protusion of the extracellular
destroyed during circulation
layer of the membrane, there is a
○ The cells will rupture due to the pressure
corresponding depression on the
because the cells behind them will be
cytoplasmic layer of the cell membrane
pushing them into the smaller areas of
and vice versa
the capillaries
● Using FREEZE FRACTURE METHOD, they
○ This are why people with Hereditary
were able to prove the presence of INTEGRAL
Spherocytosis will develop anemia
(TRANSMEMBRANE) PROTEINS

E. FREEZE FRACTURE MODEL OF THE CELL

MEMBRANE

EXTRACELLULAR LAYER OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

(under the electron microscope) - Presence of protusions
are caused or produced by the presence of the integral
proteins
● FREEZE FRACTURE MODEL
○ Developed to study particularly the F. CARBOHYDRATES
integral proteins present in the cell
membrane
● FREEZE FRACTURE METHOD PROCEDURE
IN THE LABORATORY:
1. We place or exposed cell s to freezing
temperatures.
a. We will allow them to freeze
2. After these cells are frozen, we will strike
a force using a hammer.
 be positioned in the center portion of the
blood
○ When there is any infection, WBCs have
to go to the margin or border of the
blood vessel. They have to go out from
the blood vessel and go to the area of
the body where there is an ongoing
infection
○ WBCs go to the site of the infection to
go out of the artery because they have
to do it while the rest of the cells behind
● Carbohydrates can either be Glycolipids or you are pushing you forward
glycoproteins ○ Ex: WBC in the central portion of the
○ Generally found outside the cell flowing blood must go to the periphery in
membrane order for it to reach the wall of the blood
○ May act as receptors that participate in vessel and go out of the blood vessel,
cell adhesion, and cell-to-cell given that the blood will still continuously
interaction flow and the cells behind the WBCs will
■ Cell adhesion refers to cell push it forward.
being binded to each other ● Red Blood Cells - majority of these are
○ The term “glyco” refers to sugar circulating in the periphery
○ they must share oxygen to the cells and
pick up carbon dioxide

● It is shown that this carbohydrate is attached to a

phospholipid which is a lipid, hence glycolipid

● Endothelial cells
○ lining epithelium of the blood vessels
○ representing the wall of the blood vessel
● Here it is shown that a carbohydrate is attached ● Neutrophil
to a protein, hence glycoprotein ○ Or Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
○ It has to go from the center of the blood
towards the periphery so that it can go
out of the blood vessel
○ It will utilize the green colored structures
(Carbohydrates, Glycolipids, and
Glycoproteins) to blood vessel. These
green colored structures helped the
WBC to attach itself to the wall so that it
can easily go out of the blood vessel.
○ Therefore, Carbohydrates,
Glycolipids, and Glycoproteins can
Blood vessel: Blood cells flowing through its lumen
help or mediate cell adhesion.

● White Blood Cells - (yellow colored cells in the

HOW THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS USE
photo) normally, majority of these are circulating
CARBOHYDRATES ON ITS SURFACE TO ATTACH
in the central portion of the blood ITSELF TO THE WALL OF THE BLOOD VESSEL
○ for their function not to be interfered,
majority of the white blood cells should
 ● Carbohydrates
○ Aside from functioning for cell adhesion,
they can also function for cell-to-cell
interaction.

CELL-TO-CELL INTERACTION

● A pathogen or invading microorganism was

eaten up by the macrophage.

● The white blood cells will use the carbohydrates

on its surface to attach itself to the wall of the
blood vessel so that it will not be pushed back to
the center by the cells behind it.
● With the help of the carbohydrates, the WBCs
was able to go out of the blood vessel and
phagocytose the invading microorganism.
● Certain portions of the pathogen were displayed
on the surface of the macrophage ● Microbe
○ Phagocytosed by the macrophage since
it can be clearly seen that it was broken
down or digested in the cytoplasm of the
macrophage
○ The portion of the macrophage is loaded
into this green colored structure which
contains carbohydrates
○ The end portion of the microbe is
displayed together on the surface of the
macrophage. This macrophage will
interact with T Helper Cell because it will
● The structure that was used by the macrophage present that portion of the microbe to the
to display the small parts of the pathogen is Helper Cell. T Helper Cell will also
actually a Carbohydrate. respond by using a receptor which can
also contain carbohydrate.
NOTE: Carbohydrates can mediate cell-to-cell
Interaction

● The T Cell activated by the macrophage using

the carbohydrate will interact with the B Cell
● 4 GREEN-COLORED BACTERIA
○ Out from the four, one was eaten/killed
by the macrophage but there are still
three bacteria to deal with
○ The bacterium was digested by the
lysosome of the macrophage.
○ A certain portion of the bacterium was
loaded into a blue colored structure.
Together with the blue colored structure,
the portion of that bacterium was
● The B Cell will then transform to a Plasma Cell
displayed on the surface of the
macrophage
○ The blue colored structure is primarily
composed of carbohydrate
 ● PASSIVE TRANSPORT
○ Caused by the movement of molecules
from a higher to a lower concentration
○ No need energy consumption
○ Molecule behave in a manner that does
not require the cell to spend energy for
them to move because these molecules
will move on their own
● Channels and carriers for passive transport
● Plasma cells will now produce antibodies ○ Simple Passive Transport
■ The molecule will simple diffuse
across the membrane without
the help of a chanel, carrier or
transporter
■ Passive transport does not
need energy
○ Facilitated Passive Transport
■ With the aid of channels or
carriers

● Only one out of the four bacteria was killed by

the macrophage
○ The other bacterias will be killed by the
antibodies produced by the plasma cells
● That is how to the immune system works, it
would only take one to cause harm to the other
bacteria
● One will be sampled by the macrophage using
the carbohydrate that was presented to the T
Helper Cell. The T Helper Cell activates the B
Cell. The B cell becomes a Plasma Cell and will
then produce antibodies that will kill the other
bacterias
● NOTE: Carbohydrates can mediate cell adhesion ● SIMPLE DIFFUSION
(example is chemotaxis) and cell-to-cell ○ The movement of molecules from higher
interaction. concentration to lower concentration
directly across the cell membrane. If the
TRANSPORTATION OF SUBSTANCES movement of the molecule is from higher
concentration to an area with a lower
● One of the functions of the cell membrane is to concentration, it would require the
regulate the entry and exit of substances in and presence of a channel or carrier called
out of the cell. It is also important to discuss how FACILITATED TYPE OF PASSIVE
these substances are transported: TRANSPORT

● CHANNEL (lavender colored proteins)

○ Allowing the transport of the red circles
from an area of higher concentration to a
lower concentration
 ○ If the protein does not change its shape
the molecule is transported

● Channel (red colored protein)

○ If something will diffuse through it, it will REVIEW OF TYPE OF TRANSPORTS
not change its shape
● Carrier (blue colored protein)
○ Its transporting the yellow colored
substance from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration
○ As it transports the yellow colored
substance, it changes its shape
○

PASSIVE
● Passive Transport proceeds as diffusion from
areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration.
○ OXYGEN (O2): diffusing across the
membrane without the help of a channel
or carrier is mostly likely a simple
passive diffusion
○ SODIUM (NA+): diffusing from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration
● ACTIVE TRANSPORT through the help of a channel Is most
○ Opposite of passive transport likely a facilitated passive transport
○ Transports from lower to higher ACTIVE
concentration (against concentration ● Active Transport proceeds against the
gradient or normal behavior of concentration gradient, and requires an input of
molecules) energy.
○ Requires energy consumption (ATP) ○ SODIUM (NA+): it is transported from
○ ATP has to power the protein in the cell lower concentration higher concentration
membrane with consumption of ATP
○ Pumps QUESTIONS
■ A protein 1. Requires energy?
■ Only used in active transport ● ACTIVE TRANSPORT
■ Transports molecules from an 2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusing across the
area of lower concentration to membrane without the need for channel and
an area of higher concentration carrier
● SIMPLE PASSIVE TRANSPORT
3. Type of transport going against concentration
gradient?
● ACTIVE TRANSPORT
4. Transport of molecule is from higher to lower
concentration and requires carrier?
● FACILITATED TYPE OF PASSIVE
DIFFUSION
NOTE: There are two types of proteins that you can see
in the cell membrane the blue arrow it's actually pointing
to the(1) integral protein for you to easily. The entire
protein is integrated to the two layers of the membrane so
that's the reason it's called integral the other name for this
protein is transmembrane protein because it traverses the
two layers of the membrane. The second type of protein
is loosely attached to only one of the layers of the
membrane since they are found at the sides okay or at
the periphery they will be referred to as the (2) peripheral
proteins

WHICH AMONG THEM IS EMBEDDED WITHIN THE

CELL MEMBRANE?
● The answer is integral
WHICH AMONG THEM CAN EASILY BE EXTRACTED
FROM THE CELL MEMBRANE?
● because it's it is loosely attached to one of the
layers of the membrane the answer is peripheral
WHICH AMONG THEM WOULD REQUIRE THAT THE
CELL MEMBRANE HAS TO BE TOTALLY DISRUPTED
BEFORE YOU CAN HARVEST THEM?
● Integral
WHICH AMONG THIS ONE CAN ACT AS
TRANSPORTER OR CHANNEL?
● it's most likely the integral protein