CHAPTER

2 Viscosity

2.1/ INTRODUCTION
velocities, they experience
When tw0 parallel layers of a liquid are moving with differentslower layer. These forces are
accelerate the
tangential forces which tend toretard the faster layer and
called forces of viscosity. Consider two layers of liquid separated V + dv
by a distance dz (Fig. 2.1). Let vand v+ dvbe the velocities of dz

two layers. So the velocity gradient is dldz. Let Abe the surface Fig. 2.1
area of the layer. The viscous force is directly proportional to the
surface area Aand velocity gradient dv/dz
dv ..1)
i.e., Foc A or F= n 4 dz
where
is a constant for the liquid and called coefficient of viscosity. If A = l and dudz = 1, we
have F= n.
The coeffcient of viscosity is defined as the tangential force per unit area required to maintain
a unit velocity gradient.
Unit of n is Nsm-². It is called the pascal second.
MLT2
Dimensions of (n] = -= ML'T
[A[(dv/ dz)] (LT)
2.2 STREAMLINE FLOW AND TURBULENT FLOW:
Consider aliquid flowing in a pipe. Let the velocity of flow be
at A, v, at Band v, at C (Fig. 2.2). If as time passes,the velocities at A
B.and Care constant in magnitude and direction, then the flow is said to AB C
be steady. In asteady flow, each particle follows exactly the same path Fig. 2.2
and has exactly the same velocity as its predecessor. In sucha case,the
liquid is said to have an orderly or streamline flow.
The line ABC is called a streamline, which is the path followed by an orderly procession of
narticles. The tangent to the streamline at any point gives the velocity of the liquid at that point.
The flow is steady or streamlined only as long as the velocity of the liquid does not exceed a
limiting value,called the critical velocity. When the external pressure causing the flow of the liquid
ive the motion of the liquid takes place with a velocity greater than the critical
velocity
notinn becomes unsteady or turbuiet. Lnis cauSes eddies and whirlpools in the motion ofand the
liouid. This turbulent motion is also known as vortex motion
The distinction between streamine iow and
a jet of ink axially in a wider tube in which water isturouient flowcan
made to flow be demonstrated
axially. by injecting
When the velocity of the
34
 35
Viscosity
speed of flow is increased beyond the
liguid is small, the ink will move in a straight line. As the
motion has become turbulent.
critical velocity, the ink willspread out, showing that the
Definition of critical velocity. Critical velocity ofa liquid is the velocity
below which the motion
liquid becomes turbulent.
of the liquid is orderly and above which the motion of the
Expression for the criticalvelocity. The critical velocity of aliquid
may depend upon (i) the
liquid (p) and (ii) the radius r of the
coefficient of viscosity of the liquid (n),(üi) the density of the
tube through which the liquid is flowing. We may write

where k is constant called Reynold's number.

Writing the dimensions of these quantities,
[LT] =ML- T- [ML [L
[LT-] =[MtbL-a- 38 +c Ta
-a=-1
a+b =0:-a-3b + c=l and
and c =-1.
From these equations we have, a =1, b=-1
k.n
pr

Significance of Reynold's number :

h k n .
V,pr

the nature of flowof a

Reynold's number k is that its value deternmines
The significance of the geometrically similar, whatever their
actual dimensions,
ofapparatus,
liquid through a tube. In the case value of Reynold's number in all cases
of liquid flow. The
constant
turbulence sets in at the same
individual case, until this number
is not exceeded. After
streamline in each may all vary
flow willbe steady and turbulent. Even though the values of r, p and n
becomes
exceeding this number, the flow same, the liquid fiow will be
similar in all the cases.
so long as k remains the
from each other., but
THROUGH A
FORMULA FOR THE FLOWOF ALIQUID
2.3. POISEUILLE'S
CAPILLARY TUBE

r+ dr
dr

Fig. 2.3(6)
Fig. 2.3(a)
capillarv hube
maintained between the twoends of the
Supposea constant pressure differencep is flow ofa liquid of coefficient
steady
in Fig. 2.3 (a).Consider the
of length Iand radius a, as shown velocity of the liquid is a maximum along the axis and is zero
The
of viscosity n through the tube. there 1s no radial fiow. Consider a
cylindricalshell of the liauid
walls of the tube. Assume that velocity of the
at the
tube of inner radius r and outer radius rtdr [Pig. 2.3(6)]. Let the
co-axial with the outer surface be v- du (dvldr) is the
inner surface of the shell be v and that on the
liquid on the
velocity gradient. nr
shell = A=2
The surface area of the
According toNewton's law of viscous flow, the backward dragging tangential force exerted
layer, opposite to the direction of motion
by the outer layer on the inner
 36
Properties of Matter
dv dv
F =-n4 =-n 2 r l
dr dr
The driving force on the liauid shell, accelerating it forward
F, -pr
wnere, p= pressure difference across the two ends of the tube and
TL=Area of croSs-section of the inner cylinder.
When the motion is steady,
backward dragging force (F,) = The driving force (P)
n2r1dv
dr
=p r or dy = r dr.
2nl
T-f d
Integrating, +C.
2 n 2n 2
where Cis a constant of integration.
When r=a, v=0. Hence, 0 = +Cor C= pa?
- Pos 2n 2 4n7
P
An
4 n!
(a'-)
This gives us the average velocity of the liquid flowing through
the cylindrical shell.
Hence the volume of the liquid that flows out per second
through this shell
Area of cross-section of the shell )
dV =
of radius r and thickness dr x Velocity of flow
=2rnr dr P(a-r)=P(a'r
4n -r) dr 2n!
Thevolume of the liquid that flows out per
second is obtained by integrating the
for dV between the limnits r = 0 to r*a. expression
a

2nL 2
Tp a
2n7 4

V=
8nl

2.4, ORRECTIONS TO POISEUILLE'S FORMULA

Two important corrections are to be applied in the
() Correction for pressure head : 7The
Poiseuille's equation:
outgoing liquid
passing through the tube. Hence the pressure-head maintainedacquires
is
KE. due to its velocity after
viscous resistance but also inimparting considerable KE. to emergent utilized not only for Overcoming
is less and is given by liquid. So the effective pressure
P, P
 37
Viscosity

This can be deduced as follows :

The K.E. given to the liquid of density p per second
1
E - J (2rr drvp) v =np
0
2

But P(a
4n!
-)

(4n!)
3

4nl) 8n!
v'p
done per unit volume is p/.
The work done in overcoming viscosity is p, Vwhereas total work
Here p, is the effective pressure.
pV= p, V+

of P, = p

P, = gPh. a g
pressure head for gain of kinetic energy by
Thus [VI(Tag)l is the correction factor to the
the emergent liquid. liquid is not
Correction for length of tube: Atthe inlet end of the tube, the flow of the
(ii) length of the tube
streamline for some distance. Consequently
the liquid is accelerated. The effective
becomes
Thus, the corrected relation for n
is thus increased from tol+ 1.64 a.
h 8 P
8V (1+1.64 a) ag,
DETERMINING COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF
2.5. POISEUILLE'S METHOD FOR
A LIQUID
constant level tank up to a
The liquid is taken in the bottom liquid
height h (Fig. 2.4). A capillary tube AB is fixed to the
placed below the free end B
of the tank. A weighed beaker is
m of the liquid collected in it
of the capillary tube. The mass h
in time t is found out. Ay
=V= m/(p.) where
Volume of liquid flowing per second
length l of the capillary tube Constant level tank
p is the densityof the liquid. Theradius a of the capillary tube
is measured by a metre rod. The Fig. 2.4
travelling microscope.
is determined very accurately, using the
Then from the relation
 38 Properties of Matter
pa
(where p=h pg)
8VI
the value of n for the liquid can be easily
calculated.
Comparison of viscosities : The ligujd whose viscosity is n, is first used in the constant level
Lank and the volume of liquid lowing per second =v, =m,ip, . tis determined with acapillary tube.
1ne tube 1s then taken out and cleaned well. The experiment is repeated for the other liquid whose
VIsCOsity 1S n, and the volume of liguidfowing per second =V,=m/p,. t is determined for the same
Pressure head and with the same capillary tube, If! is the length of the tube, a its radius and p, and
p, the densities of the two liquids,

nh Pg a and n Th pg a
8V, 1
P/P can be determined with a Hare's apparatus. Thus the viscosities of two liquids can be
compared.

2.6 OSTWALD'S VISCOMETER=

This instrument is used to compare the viscosities of two liquids. It is also used to study the
variation of viscosity of a liquid with temperature.
The apparatus consists of two glass bulbs A and Bjoined by a capillary
tube DE bent into a U-form (Fig. 2.5). The bulb A is connected to a funnel
F. The bulb B is connected to an exhaust pump through a stop-cock S. K, to
L, and M are fixed marks, as shown in the figure. The whole apparatus is B pump
placed inside a constant temperature bath.
The liquid is then introduced into the apparatus through the funnel and
its volume is adjusted, so that the liquid occupies the portion between the
marks K and M, when the stop-cock is closed. The stop--cock is now opened
and with the help of the exhaust pump the liquid is sucked up above the mark Fig. 2.5
K The stop-cock is closed and the exhaust pump 1s
removed. The stop-cock is again opened. The
liquid is allowed to flow through the capillary tube.
The time (t.) taken by the liquid to fall from the mark Kto
is then repeated with the second liquid and the time ()
the mark L is noted. The experiment
taken by it to fall fromK to I. is noted.
Theory : Let n, and n, be the coefhcients of vISCOSity and p,
liquids respectively. Let the volume of liquid between K and L be and Then
p, the densities of the two
the rate of flow of the first liquid = V, = VIt,
and the rate of flow of the second liquid = ,= Vlt, ...(1)
n.P.a n.B.a
...2)
Now, n, and n,=
8V.1 8 V,.!
Or
..(3)
But the pressure P is proportional tothe density of the liquid used (P
=bon
Pi
Hence,
P2 .(4)

Also, dividing (2) by (1),

..5)
 39

Heoce -16)

From equation (6). 1- n- can be calculated

27. POISEUILLE'S METHOD FOR DETERMINING COEFFICIENT OF VIScOSITY OF
A LIQUID VARIABLE PRESSURE HEAD] =
The given liquid is poured into a graduated burete. The czpillary
ube is fxei as shown in îgure (Fig. 2.6). The clip is opened fully. The 10
liguid is allowad to iow slowiy through the capillary ube. Whea the
bouid level in the buretecOSses the zero marking. a stop-clock is Startai 20
The readings of the stop clock are notad when the iquid level crosses 30
the 10cc. 20c. 30cc. etc. markings. The verical height h between the 40
capllary rube and midpoints of the range (-10cc. 10-20ce. 20-30ce 50
The lengç of the capillary ube () is masured The radiusa of
the capily ube ismeasurei using mercurv hreai or microscope. The
densiry of theliquidpis detemined using Hare's apparatus. The reaings
Fig. 26
ahulated as folows:
Stop-cioc Burette Vome Men Time of
Burette reating ofliquid prae fon t
reaing
Reading cc Secord rage fioning

O to 10 cc 10 x 10
10
20 10 to 20 cc

30 20 to 30 cc
Mean . tW=
The coefñcient of viscosity is calculated using
the formula

8!
Example 1 : Waaer flows tough ahorizontal rube of length
0.2 metres and interra!
12 minutes
radius 8.! x 1 metre under a constant head of the liguid 0.2 metres high in
viscosiy of water The
8.64 × 1o m of liquid issues from the tube. Calculate the coeficient of
ms.
dersity of water - 1000 kg m ndg = 9.81
Zp.a
From Poiseuille's fomula V=
8n.!
Nm:a=8.1 x 10m
Here, p =h.p.g=02 x 1000 x 9.8
8.64x 10
l=0.2 m, V=
12 x 60
= 12x 10 m=?

Zp.a (3.14) (02x 1000 x 9.8) (8.lx 10)

Now, 8.! 8(12×10)0.2
= 138 x 103 Nsm
capillary ube
Example 2 : A vessel of cross-section 0.002m has at the bortom a horizon:al
0.2m
of length 0.Im and internal radus 0.0005m It is initially filled with water p to a contents,ofgiven
height
abovethe capillay ube. Find the time taken by the vessel to empy one-half of izs
the viscosity of water = 10 Nsm
40 Properties of Matter
According to Poiseuille's formula,
Volume of liquid flowing n pa
out of a tube per second
= V= ..(1)
8n'
Let Abe the area of cross-section of the vessel and h the height of water above the capillary
tube. Then, p = hpg. Suppose in a small time dt the level of water in the vessel falls by dh. Then,
volume of water flowing out in time dt = Adh.
Rate of flow of water = A dhldt ...2)
From (1) and (2), - A
dh n(hpg)a
dt 8 n/
8 An! dh
or dt =

8 An
Integrating, t=
I Pga
[log, Al
8An!
loge
npga
Here, A=0.002 m²;n=10 Nsm²,1= 0.1 m; p=1000 kg m3
g=9.8 ms, a =0.0005m; h, =0.2m and h, = 0.Im.
8x0.002x 10 x0.1
log, 2 = 576.2s.
TX 1000 x 9.8(0.0005)*
Example 3:Calculate the mass of water flowingin 10mites through a tube 0.00Im diameter
and 0.4m long if there is a constant pressure head of 0.2m of water. The coefficient of viscosityof
water is 0.00082 Nsm2.
Mass of water flowing|
= M= V xt Xp=
in 10 minutes 8nl
Here, p =hpg = 0.2x 1000 × 9.8 = 1960 Nm2: a= 0,0005 m.
t= 10 x 60 = 600s ; n = 0.00082 Nsm and = 0.4 m.

M= TX 1960 x(0.0005)* x 600

x 1000 =0.0879S kg
8x 0.00082 x 0.4
Example 4: Calculate the maximum velocity with which water of coefficient of viscosity 0.001
Nsm fows througha tube ofradius 6 x 10* mwithout turbulence being produced. Reynolds number
is 1000. Find the rate offlow of water through the tube at this velocity and the
pressure head required
to maintain it if the length of the tube is 0.2m.
Critical velocity = v, = kn
1000 x 0.001
=1.667ms-!
pr 1000 x 6x 104
Rate of flow of water through the tube
V= Area x Velocity = 1. rX V,=n (6 x 104)2 1.667
= 1.884 x 10-6 m³/sec.
V=
Tip.a Th pg.a 8 n/.v
or h=
8n.! 8n.! T Pg.a4
Viscosity 41

h = 8x 0.001 x 0.2 x (1.884 x10°) =0.7559m.

IX 1000x 9.8 x (6x 10*
Example 5:Assuming the Poiseuille sformulafor the rate offow of liquid through acapillary.
show that if hwo capillaries of radii a,and a, having lengths l, andl, respectively are set in series,
T. p
the rate of flow is given by V= where p is the pressure difference across the
8n a
arrangement and n is coeffcient of viscosity.Also show that with the same two capillaries connected
a
in parallel, V= "P 4 +
8n

Consider the arrangement consisting of two capillaries of radii a, and a, having lengths
and 1, respectively joined in series. Let p, and p, be the pressures at the extreme ends and let p, be
the pressure at the junction. Then, pressure difference across the ends of the first tube =p, -P, and
pressure difference across the ends of the second tube p, -P,:
Since there is no accumulation of the liquid at the junction of the two capillaries, the rate of
flow (V) through the whole arrangement must be the same.
T (P, - P2)a4
V=
8n. 8n.4
8nV.4 8nV.h ...(2)
or Pi-P 4 ...(1) andp,-P;=

8nV,
Adding (1) and (2), P-P,= a
4

p
Now, p, -p, =pressure difference across the composite tube
8n V +
Hence p =
a a
V=
Or
8na a
liquid flowing per second
When the two capillary tubes are connected in parallel, the volume of
through them is given by
+
8n4 8n'z 8n

Example 6: Tvo tubes A and Bof lengths Im and 0.5 m

have radii 10m and 2 x 10m
pressure of0. 8m ofmercun
respectively. Ifa liguid is passing through the two tubes, entering Aat a junction ofA and B.
pressure at the
and leaving B at a pressure of0.76 m of mercury,fnd the
flows out per second (
For a liquid which is incompressible, the volume of the liquid that
willbe same in AandB.
4

V=
8n.4 8n.l,
where p, is the pressure difference between the two ends of the tube A of length /, and radius g. and
of the tube B of length I, and radie
P, is the pressure difference between the two ends
 3 Surface Tension
CHAPTER

3.1/ INTRODUCTION
Any liquid in small quantity,so that gravity influence is negligibly smal,will always asume
the form of aspherical drop eg. rain drops,smallquantities of mercury placed on aclean glass plate
etc. So a liquid must experience some kind of force, so as to occupy a minimum surface area. This
contracting tendency of a liquid surface is known as surface tension of liquid. This is a fundamental
property of every liquid.
The following experiment illustrates the tendency of a liquid to decrease its surface area.
When a camel hair brush is dipped into water, the bristles spread out
Fig. 3.1(a)]. When the brush is taken out,thebristles cling together on account
of the films of water between them contracting (Fig. 3.1. (b)]. Thisexperiment
clearly shows that the surface of a liquid behaves like an elastic membrane
under tension with a tendency to contract. This tension or pull in the surface of
a liquid is called its surface tension.
Definition :It may be defined as the force per unit length ofa line drawn (b)
(a)
in the liquid surface, acting perpendicular to it at every point and tending to
Fig. 3.1
pull the surface apart along the line.
Unit of surface tension. Surface tension being force per unit length, its SI unit is newton per
metre (Nm-).
Dimensions of surface tension : Since it is the ratio of a force to a length, its
dimensions are
MLT²IL= MT2.
Molecular forces : There are two kinds of molecular
forces:
() adhesive forces and (i) cohesive forces.
known as adhesive forces.
Forces of attraction between molecules of different substancesare
For example. the force of attraction between the glass molecules of a beaker and molecules
Adhesive force is different for different nairs of
of water contained in it is an adhesive force.
substances.
substance is called cohesive force.This force
(in Force of attraction between molecules of the same
between two molecules. Hence,
varies inversely probably as the eighth power of the distance
molecules is small. It is the greatest in
it is very appreciable when the distance between two definite shape, a liquid has
solids, less in liquids and the least in gases. Therefore,a solid has a
neither.
a definite free surface and a gas has
force of attraction on another is called
The maximum distance up to which a moleculeexerts a sphere with the molecule
the order of 10 m. A
the range of molecular attraction and is generally of radius is called the sphere of influence of the
as centre and the range of molecular attraction as present inside this sphere.
molecule. The molecule attracts and is, in turn, attracted by the molecules
53
54
Properties of Matter
3.2 EXPLANATION OF SURFACE TENSION ON KINETIC THEORY
Consider three molecules A, Band Cof aliquid [Fig. 3.2]. The
circles aroundthem indicate their respective spheres of influence.
() The molecule A is well within the liquid and it is attracted R
cqually in all directions by the other molecules lying within
its sphere of influence. Therefore, it does not experience any
resultant force in any direction. This happens only as long as Fig, 3.2
the sphere of influence is well within the liquid.
(ii) The sphere of influence of molecule Blies partly outside the liquid. The upper half of the sphere
contains fewer molecules attracting the molecule B upwards, than the lower half attracting it
downwards. Hence, there is a resultant downward force acting on B.
(iii) The molecule C lies on the surface of the liquid. Half of its sphere of influence
lies above
the surface of the liquid and contains only a few vapour molecules,
whereas
liquid molecules in its entire lower half. Thus the resultant downward force in there are many
this case is the
maximum. If a plane RS is drawn parallel to the free surface PQ of the liquid at a distance equal
to the molecular range, then the layer of the liquid between the
planes
the surface film. Hence all the molecules in the surface film are pulled P0 and RS is called
cohesive force between molecules. downward due to the
If a molecule is to be brought from the interior of the
liquid to the surface of the liquid, work
has to be done against the downward cohesive force acting
upon it. Hence molecules in the surface
film have greater potential energy than the molecules inside
of a system tends towards a minimum, the surface the liquid. Since the potential energy
film tends to contract, so as to contain minimum
number of molecules in it. Thus the surface of the liquid is under
elastic membrane. tension and behaves like astretched
Súrface energy: The potentialenergy per unit area of the
energy.
surface film is called its surface
Example 1 : Aglass plate of length 0.1 breadth 0.0154 m
82x 10-3 kg in air. It is held vertically with the m,long and thickness 0.002 m weighs
Findthe apparent weight of theplate. Surface tension of side horizontal and the lower half under water.
water =73 x 10-3 Nm. g = 9.8 m/s?.
Volume of the portion of the plate immersed in water is
0.1x(0.0154) (0.002)=1.54 x10-4m
Upthrust = Weight of water displaced
=(1.54 x 10) x 1000 x 9.8
= 1509 × 10-2 N=0.01509 N
Now total length of the plate in
contact with the water surface is
Downward pull upon the plate due to surface tension is
2(0.1+0.002) = 0.204 m.
0.204 x (73 x 103) =0.0149 N
Resultant upthrust =0.01509 0.0149 = 0.00019 N
= 0.00019/9.8 kg wt
= 1.939 x 105 kg
wt
Apparent weight of the plate in water = Weight of the
plate in
=8.2 x 10-3 - 1.939 x air- resultant upthrus
10-5 8.18x 10 kg
3.3. WORK DONE IN INCREASING THE AREA OF A
SURFACE
Take a rectangular framework of wire ABCD, with a horizontal wire EF placed acroSS it, free
to move up and down (Fig. 3.3]. Form asoap film across BCFE by dipping it in asoap solution. The
wire EF will now be pulled upwards by the surface tension of the film acting in the plane of the film
Surface Tension 55

and perpendicula to EF, Therefore, to kecp the wire EF in equilibrium, a B

force F(including the weight of the wire EF) has to be upplicd downwards.
Ifa =the force pet unit length of the film (Le., S.T)and the length of
the wire EF, then the upward force duc to S.T. = 2lo [": The film has two
surfaces and each has a S.T. o]
Hence F-21. o E F
If the wire is pulled downwards through a small distance x to the
position EF
A
the work done = Fx=2lo.x=021.x
Fig. 3.3
= S.T. x Increase in surface area
the work done in increasing the o21.x =g
surface area of the liquid film by unity| 21.x
.:. The surface tension ofa liquid may be defined as the amount of workdone in increasing the
surface area of the liquid film by unity.
The work required to enlarge the surface of separation between two immiscible or partially
miscible liquids is called the interfacial surface energy, and is often expressed as the interfacial
tension in newton per metre
Example 2: Calculae he work done in spraying a spherical drop of water of10s m radius
Nm.
into million droplets, all of the same size, the surface tension of water being 72 x 10-3
Breaking the liquid drop means an increase in surface area. Therefore
work has to be done for
this purpOse.
Work done = Surface tension × Increase in surface area.
Let us calculate the increase in surface area.
smaller droplets.
Let R be the radius of the larger drop and r the radius of the
Volume of the originaldrop = Volume of 10° droplets.
4
nR = 10°x3
r
4
4
=10 x*nr [: R=10- m]
n (10 3
= 10-l5 m r= 10 m
R'=4 n (10-3) =4 x 10 m²
Area of original large drop = 4n
n=10ó x 4 n (10-52
Area of l06 droplets = 10 x 4
=4n X 10 m²
10-3 m2
Hence increase in surface area = 4
Tt X 10*-4 T X 10-0= 1.244 ×
surface area.
Work done = Surface tension x Increase in
=(72 x 103) x (1.244 x 103)
= 8.956 >x 105 joules
BUBBLE
3.4. WORK DONE IN BLOWINGA
surfaces, an inner and an outer one,
Let the radius of the bubble blown be r. A bubble has two
each of surface area 4 n r.
bubble = 2 x4 2= 8n2
The surface area of the film forming the
Work done in blowing the bubble Surface tension x surface area of the film formed
=gX8T P = 8 o
 56 Properties of Matter
Example 3 : Calculate the amount of workdone if asoap bubble is slowiy enlarged from a
radius of 0.l mto a radius of 0.2 m. a =30 x 10 Nn.
Increase in surface area =2[4n (r,-r)] = 8 [(0.2) (0.1)] = 0.7536 m
Work done = Increase in surface area X o
=0.7536 x(30 x 10) = 0.02261 J
Example4: What is thework done in blowing asoapbubble of radus0.I m? What additional
work will be performed in further blowing it, sothat its radius becomes 0.15 m? g = 30x 10' Nm!
Work done in blowing a soap
=Surface tension x Increase in surface area
bubble of radius 0.1 m
W
=gx8r2=(30 x 102) 8r (0.1? =7.536 x 103J
Work done in increasing the radius of
the soap bubble from 0.1 m to 0.15 m Gx 8z (r? -r)
i.e., W=(30 x 103) 8n [(0.15)2 (0.1)] = 9.42 x 10- J
3.5. FORMSOF LIQUID DROPS
When aquantity of liquid rests upon ahorizontal solid plate, which it does not wet, the shape
of the drop is determined by surface tension and gravity. For extremely small drops, the S.T. effects
are great and the gravitational effects small. So S.T. determines the shape of the drop. It is therefore
spherical. Rain drops, a small quantity of mercury on a glass plate, water drops on leaves, all assume
spherical shapes on account of this.
On increasing the size of the drop, the effect of gravitation becomes greater and that of S.T.
less. Now, the effect of gravitation alone would be tomake the drop spreadout, so
that its centre of
gravity may be the lowest. Hence, a large drop of a heavy liquid spreads out when placed on a glass
plate. Therefore, a large drop of mercury is always flat.
3.6. ANGLE OF CONTACT
When aglass plate is dipped in water, the water molecules
cling to the surface of glass and the water molecules rise along
the plate. The shape of water is as shown in Fig. 3.4 (i). When
the glass plate is dipped in mercury, the mercury molecules
cling to the surface and the liquid is depressed along the plate
as shown in Fig. 3.4 (ii).
The angle of contactOis defined as the anlge made by
the tangent at the point ofcontact of the liquid surface with the water mercury
glass surface inside the liquid.
Fig. 3.4
This angle may have any value between 0° and
180°. For most liquids and glass, it is less than
90°: for mercury and glass, it is about 140°. It
solid. It is quite independent of the angle of really depends upon the nature of the liquid and the
inclination of the solid to the liquid surface.
3.7. SPREADING OF ONE LIQUID OVER ANOTHER
Let a liquid(liquid A) be in contact with another liquid
shown in Fig.3.5. The free surfaces of bothliquids are in contact(liquid B) as
Three forces are acting at the point of contact Pof the three with air.
air
substances. Liquid B
(1) S.T. , between liquid A andair, (2) S.T. o, between liquid Band air
£nd (3) S.T. o, between liquids Aand B. The directions of these tensions -TLiquid A:
ave along the tangents at the lines of common contact. If
equilibrium is
possible, we should be able to represent the three forces acting at the Fig. 3.5
Surface Tension 57

point P by the three sides of a triangle, taken in order. Such a triangle is known as the Neumann s
triangle. The sum of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the third side. Therefore, the
sum of any twoof the three surtàce tensions G, o, and o, should be greater than the third. No two
pure liquids satisfy this condition. Thus it is not possible to have adrop of one liquid remaining in
equilibrium over another liquid. The liquid B, if it is lighter than the liquid 4, will spread over the
surface of A.Quincke showed that pure water spreads over pure mercury.But, ifthe mercury surface
iscontaminated with grease, the water will form adrop on the mercury surface. For contaminated
surfaces of liquids, the construction of Neumann's triangle can be possible.
3.8. PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSs A LIQUID SURFACE=
(a) If the free surface of the liquid is plane, as in Fig. 3.6 (a), the resultant force due to S.T. on a
molecule on the surface is zero.
(b) If the free surface of the liquid is concave, as
in Fig. 3.6(b), the resultant force due to S.T.
on a molecule on the surface acts vertically (a) (b) (c)
upwards. Fig. 3.6
(c) If the free surface of the liquid is convex, as in Fig. 3.6 (c), the resultant force due to S.T. on
amolecule on the surface acts vertically downwards (into the liquid ).
Exeess pressure inside aliquid drop:A spherical liquid drop has aconvex surface, as in Fig.
3.7 (). The molecules near the surface of the drop experience aresultant force, acting inwards due
to surface tension. Therefore, the pressure inside the drop must be greater than the pressure outside
it. Let this excess pressure inside the liquid drop over the pressure outside it be p.
Imagine the drop to be divided into two exactly equal
halves.Consider the equilibrium of the upper-half (or the upper
hemisphere) of the drop as shown in Fig. 3.7 (i). Ifr is the radius
of the drop, and o its S.T.
theupward force on the plane face (in
()
ABCD due tothe excesss pressurePJ Fig.3.7
the downward force due to surface tension acting =o 2 r
along the circumference of the circle ABCD
Since the hemisphere is in equilibrium, the two forces are equal.
or p= 2g/r
Excess pressure inside a soap bubble : A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in contact with
bubble.
air, one inside the bubble and the other outside the
4Tro
The force due to S.T. in this case=2 xo 2T=
Therefore, for equilibrium of the hemisphere,
pr = 4Tr or p= 4o/r
Thus the excess pressure inside a drop or a bubble is inversely proportional to its radius
(i.e., p oc l/r). Since p oc l/r, the pressure needed to form a very smallbubble is high. This explains
why one needs to blow hard to starta balloon growing. Once the balloon has grown, less air pressure
is needed to make it expand more.
3.9. EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A CURVED LIQUID SURFACE
When the pressure on both sides ofa liquid surface is same, then the surface is flat, without
any curyature. But when it is curved convex upwards, then the pressure inside must be greater than
S.T.
the pressure outside and the excess pressure inside is balanced by the force of
58
Properties of Ma.
To find the excess pressure, consider a small curvilinear rectangular
element A, B, CD, of a liquid surface [Fig. 3.8]. A, B, has a radius of
curvatureR, with centre at O,. B, C, hasa radius of curvature R,with centre
at O,. Let p be the excess of pressure inside the surface over that outside. A
Then the outward thrust on the surface A, B,C, D, =px Area of theelement
A, B,C, D,pxA, B, XB, C: RA
Now, let the surface be moved outward through a very small distance òx. R,
Let the new position of the surface be A, B, C, D,:
Work done in the displacement =p.A,B,.B, C.x ...(1)
Now, increase
=Area of A,B, C, D,- Area of A, B, C,D, Fig. 3.8
in surface area
-A, B,.B, C,-A, B,. B, Ci
From similar triangles, A, B, O, and A, B, O
4B =

A,B, A,B, (R + &r)

AB (R + ôx)
A,B, = R -48|1 R
Sx
Similarly, B,C, = BCG|1+
Hence

Òx
R R)
Increase in Òx
surface area 4B.BG|1+ R R, -4B. B,C
1
= AB.BC .âx +
R RJ
Work done in increasing
= (Surace tension xincrease in
the area of a surface surface area}

=0.AB .B,C,.ôx1 ..2)

R R
Equating (1)and (2) we have,

p.AB,. B,C,. ôx =o.4B, .BG.&x 1 1

R R
1
or
R,
The excess of pressure inside any particular surface can be deduced from the above expression.
1. Spherical liquid drop (an air bubble in a liguid).
It has only one surface and the radius of curvature is the
p =2o/r
same everywhere, i.e., R
=R,=r.
 Cuvii r oa
Surface Tension 59

2. Spherical soap bubble. Here there are two surfaces having the same radius of curvature.
P=4o/r
3. Cylindrical drop. R, = r= Radius of the cylinder and R, = 0.
p =s/r
4. Cylindrical bubble. p= 2o/r since it has two surfaces.

Note: We have,p=o This expression holds good for (2)

R,
surfaces such as spherical or ellipsoidal, for which the principal radii
of curvature are on the same side. Such surfaces are called synclastic (b)
surfaces [Fig. 3.9 (a)]. But in cases where the two radii are in opposite
directions, the surface is called anticlastic [Fig. 3.9 (b)]. Fig. 3.9
The expression for such surfaces is
1 1
UGC..A)...PLAN

R R, UG / G GRANai
Combining the two cases, the general relation is DEPT. O F , S i c a .
1 GENERAL LIBRARY

R R,
Example 5: There is a minute circular hole at the bottom of asmall hollow vessel. The vessel
of
has to be immersed in water to a depth of0.4 m, before any water penetrates inside. Find the radius
the hole, if the surface tension and density of water be 73 x 10-3 N' and 1000 kg m respectively.
pressure that
Water cannot penetrate tillthe hydrostatic pressure is greater than the excess of
penetrates, the two
comes into play due to surface tension. At the limiting condition, when water just
the hole.
pressures should be equal; i.e., hpg=2a/r where r is the radius of
r =2.g/(hp g)
Here, o =73 x 103 Nml; h= 0.4 m; p= 1000 kgm; r=?
2x(73 x10) =3.724x 10- m
r =
0.4 x 1000 9.8
of 104 m radius, situated
Example 6 : What would be the pressure inside a small air bubble
tobe 70x 105 Nm and the atmospheric
just below the surface of water?S. T. of watermay be taken
pressure to be 1.012 x 10
Nm2, GLLEGS
2o
Excess of pressure inside the spherical
air bubble over that of the atmosphere
p=
\o0712
m
Here, o=70 x 10- Nm-:r= 10
Excess 2o 2x(70 x10) =1400 Nm
= p= 104
pressure
Total pressure inside Atmospheric pressure
=

the air bubble |+ Excess pressure

=1.012 x 10 +1400 =1.026 x 105 Nm2

Example 7: The pressure of air in a soap bubble of 7x 10 m

diameter is 8 x 10-3m of water
above the atmospheric pressure. Calculate the S. T. of the soap solution.
Excess of pressure inside a soap = pE 4o
bubble over that outside it r
Surface Tension 61

Example 10: Aminute spherical air bubble is rising slowly through a column of merciy
contained in a deep jar: If the radius of the bubble at a depth of I mis 0.0001 m, calculate ils depin
when its radus is 0.000126 m. Given :S.T. of mercury = 567 x 103 Nm. Atmospheric pressure
= 0.76 m of Hg.
Total pressure inside the bubble at a depth of Im =p,= Atmosphericpressure t pressure due
to 1m of mercury column + excess pressure inside the bubble (2 o/r)] i.e.,
P, =0.76 x 13600 »x9.81 + 1 x 13600 × 9.81 +(2 x 567 x 10/0.0001)
=2.461 x 10 Nm2
4 4
Volume of the bubble = V=} =1(0.0001)"
3
=4.187 x 10-12 m
Let h be the depth at which radius of the bubble is 0.000126m.
Total pressure inside the bubble at a depth of h metre is
P, =0.76x 13600 x 9.81+hx 13600 x9.81 +(2 x 567 x 10/0.000126)
= 1.014 x105 + 1.334 x 10h + 9000 = 133400h + 110400
4 4
Volume of the bubble = V=,
3 3
Fn (0.000126
=8.373 x 10-12 m

Applying Boyle's law, pV-P,;

(2.461x 10) (4.187 x 10-12) = (133400h + 110400) (8.373 x 1012)
Simplifying, h = 0.0945m
THIN LAYEROF A LIQUID
3.10. FORCE BETWEEN TWO PLATES SEPARATED BY A
Let PO and RS be two equal horizontal plates separated
thickness d. Let the thin
by a very thin layer of liquid of circular area A
layer of liquid wet the plates over an almost R
3.10. The radius
which is concave outwards, as shown in Fig. Fig. 3.10
of the liquid layer is
of curvature of the two concave edges
nearly d/2.
liquid-film
Excess pressure inside the
over the outside atmospheric pressure
=

p-o
r=radius of the circular area of the ligquid film.
where o=S.T. of the liquid-film and
p=-2cld since r >> d.
the film is less than the atmospheric pressure
The negative sign indicates that the pressure inside together.
atmosphere on the two plates pushes them closer
by 2 old. Therefore the excess pressure of the be applied.
normally apart, a force 2 Aold should
If the plates are to be separated by pulling them
surfaces stick to each other strongly.
Note : This explains why two plates with moistened
separate two plates of glass of area10-³ m² each
Example 11 :Calculate the force required to 75
water = x 10-3 Nm-!.
with a layer of water 10- m thick. S.T of
A =103 m, g =75 x 10-3 Nm-, d= 10 m, F=?
Here,
F=
2x10°x (75 x10°) = 150 N
d 10-6
 70 Properties of Matter
Definition: When one liquid rests on another withot mixing with it,the interface between the
woliquids possesses energv just like the surfaceof aliquid. The interfacial tension is the value of
the force acting per metre normal to a line drawn on the interface.

3.18.EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE INTERFACIAL TENSION BETWEEN WATER

AND KEROSENE
Sufficient amount of the lighter liquid (kerosene) is taken in a beaker. The weight
W, of the beaker with kerosene is determined. The heavier liquid (water) is taken
in
the burette [Fig. 3.18]. The glass tube is fixed vertically with its end under the surface
of kerosene. The flow of water is regulated so that drops of water detach themselves
into kerosene one by one. After çollecting 50 drops, the beaker is again weighed.
Let
Water
thisweight be w,. Then w,-W,gives the mass of 50 drops. From this the
mof eachdrop is calculated. The interfacial tension g between water andaverage masS
calculated using the formula
m .g
3.8 r
P2
kerosene is
Kerosne
Mass of beaker Mass of beaker
Mean + lighter liquid Mass of 50
No. + lighter liquid Mean Fig. 3.18
w, kg + 50 drops w, kg drops =
Trial I Trial II Trial I Trial II (W, - w) kg

Theory : Let p, and p, be thedensities of water and kerosene respectively. Let m be the mass
of water drop in air.
Volume of water drop = mp,
volume of kerosene displaced
by the water drop
mass of kerosene displaced| mP:
by the water drop
Apparent weight of the
mg -
water drop in kerosene P
Let o be the S.T. at the interface between the two liquids.
Then. 2 ra = + m.g
mpg
P
m.g

Again the more accurate equation will be

m.g P2
-
3.8 r

Example 15: 100 drops of water falling down a tube of external diameter 3.5 mm are collected
under coconut oil of specific gravity 0.8. Calculate the interfacial tension between water and oil if
the water collected weighs lI2.35 gm.
Here, m = (12.35 x 10-3yi00= 1.235 x 10 kg
r-1.75 x 10 m: p, =1000 kg/m² and p, =800 kg/m.o=?
Surface Tension 71

3.8 r

(1.235 x 10)9.8 800

=0.0364 Nm
3.8x (1.75 x10) 1000

EXERCISE I
- SECTION -A
1. Define S.T. and angle of contact.
2, What are the units and dimensions of surface tension ?
3. Explain S.T. from the point of view of molecular theory of matter.
4. What is surface energy ? How is it related to S.T.?
5. It is easier to spray water when soap is added to it than when it is pure. Why ?
[Hint. When soap is added to water, the surface tension decreases. Therefore less work is required to
spray water.]
6. Several fog particles merge to fom asingle particle. Has the potential energy decreased or decreases.]
increased?
Explain your answer. [Hint. Area decreases ’ PE.
7. In the case of mercury,there is capillary depression.Why ?
[Ans. This is because the cohesive forces in the liquid molecules are greater than the forces of attraction
between the glass and liquid molecules]
8. Water wets the glass surface while mercury does not. Why ?
[Hint. Because the forces of adhesion between water and glass are greater than the forces of cohesion
between water molecules.]
9. If two bubbles of different size are blown at opposite ends of a pipe, what will happen ?
flows from
[Ans. The smaller bubble will contract and the larger bubble will expand, showing that the air
pressure.]
smaller bubble which has more pressure to larger bubble which has less
surface and that over a flat surface.
10. Obtain the relation between the vapor pressure over a curved
soap bubble and (ii) a spherical liquid
11. Obtain an expression for the excess of pressure inside ()a spherical
drop.
SECTION-B
soap film of surface tension o over that on the other
12. Prove that the excess of pressure on one side of a
(1 1
side is given by p=2o R
variation of S.T. of water with temperature.
13. Describe Jaegar's method of studying the
Derive the formula employed.
14. Describe Quincke's method of finding S.T. its effects on
15. Deduce the relation between S.T. and vapour pressure at a curved surface and discuss
evaporation and condensation.

16. How do youdistinguish between ripples and waves ? Describe Rayleigh's method for measuring the
necessary formula used.
surface tension ofa liquid. Derive the
determine the surface tension of a liquid.
17. Explain the drop-weight method experiment to
SECTION C
Find the mechanical work done.
18. A drop of water of radius 10* m is split into 1000 equal tiny droplets.
Calculate the excess of pressure inside each droplet, if the S.T. of water is 75 x 10-3 Nm-!.
[Ans. W= 8,482 x 108 J; P= 1.5 x 10 Nm]
60 Properties of Matter
Here, p =8 x 10 mof water
9.81 Nm2
=(8 x 103) x 1000 x
=78,48 Nm-2

r=(7x10-3)2 =3.5 x 10-3 m

Nm-!
pr, 78.48 x(3.5 x10) -= 68.67 x10-
4 4
whose pressure
bubble of radius 0.00l mis blown in an atmosphere
0.05 Nm', to what pressure must the
Example 8:A spherical
the liauid comprising the flm is
1S 10 Nm. If the S.T. of the radius of the bubble may be
doubled ?
atmosphere be brought in order that
Surrounading
The pressure inside the bubble initially is
-+10 = 1.002 x 10 Nm
4x0.05
40
+P=
p; r 0.001

The volume of 4
= V,=r=x10m'
the bubble 3
be P, Then
the radius of the bubble is 0.002 m. Let the required pressure
In the second case,
the total pressure inside the bubble, 4x0.05
46
+P +P =(100 + P,) Nm
P 0.002 0.002
4
= V,=n (0.002)
In the second case, volume of the bubble
Applying Boyle's law, p, V-Pp
4
(1.002 x10°l;nx110=(100 + P)n(0.002)
3 3

Simplifying, P,= 1.252 x 104 Nm2

coalesce toform a single bubble of radius r
Example 9: Two soap bubbles of radii r, andr,
pressure is P prove that the S.T. ofthe solution from which the soap bubble is formed
Iftheexternal

is given byo= P ( - r - r , r + r , - ) .
Pressure inside the first bubble =p, =(4olr,) + P
Pressure inside the second bubble =p, = (4 olr,) tP
radius r.
Let the bubbles coalesce into a larger bubble of
P
Then, pressure inside this larger bubble=p, = (4¡lr) +
and V, the volume of the
Let V,,V, be the volumes of the two bubbles before they coalesce
large bubble formed. Then by Boyle's law,

(46 4 4o
+P

Or 4c (r?+r-) -P-r-r)
or
P - - ( +-)