Course Guide in

CRIMINOLOGICAL
RESEARCH 1
 Probably, your first question in this course might be: What is not a research and what is a
research?

Research is NOT . . .

•when you are told by your instructor to do "research" in the library about types of crime, for
example;

•when you tell your parents that you need money because you are going to an internet cafe to
do "research" about types of crime;or

•when you ask permission from your parents to go to your classmate's house and go home late
because you are "researching" types of crime.

The term "research" that you usually use in these situations connotes another term.
Instead of using “research," the best word you can use is "literature review." A literature review is
an act of browsing the literature (e.g. books,research journals, and articles in the internet) for a
specific topic, say types of crimes, and collating what these sources say about types of crimes
through writing an essay. It should be noted, however, that reviewing the literature about a
topic is a requisite of research. In order to not reinvent the wheel, the researcher must review
the literature, especially previous research. By reviewing previous research, one will know the
gaps of the literature, and, therefore, he/she can situate his research within the big puzzle of the
literature about his chosen topic.

The Entymology of research came from a French word "recerche"meaning to seek out.
The meaning deligently refering to "sceintific inquiry and investigation directed to the discovery
of some fact". The phrase was also further defined as a “work on a large scale innovaion”.

Research refers to the scientific investigation into or of a specifically identified

phenomenon and is applicable to recognizable and undiscovered phenomena ( Dantzker, et, al,
2018). It includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that links mans
specualtion with reality. It is also defined as a "careful, systematic study of knowledge in the
field of criminology or criminal justice, undertaken to discover or establish facts or causations of
crime" (p.2,Soriano,2011).

What is the needs to do Research? Research is needed to;

•To discover the truth, which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet;

•To discover the solution of a problem;

•To expand the scope of theoretical knowledge;

•To discover the new application for old knowledge;

•To understand, analyze and explore the phenomena;

•To know the cause effect relationship

•To improve the level of living in society;

•For professional and intellectual development of the researcher bygaining knowledge;

•To obtain prestige and respect by a person or by the institution;

•To obtain a research degree;

•As a means of livelihood by way of obtaining the source of finance

Goals/Purposes of Research

According to Amante (2013) research is designed to:

1.Discover new facts about known phenomena.

2.Find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and
information.

3. Discover previously unrecognized substances and elements.

4. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments and product.

5.Discover pathways of action of known substances or elements.

6.Satisfy the researcher's curiosity.

7.Find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.

KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

1.According to purpose

a. Predictive or Prognostic Research- has the purpose of determining the future operation of
the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better. It
proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice and seeks to establish a close
statistical connection between characteristics of the student and prediction of educational
outcome.

b.Directive Research-determines what should be done based on the findings to remedy an

unsatisfactory condition, if there is any.

c. Illuminative Research-is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable
being investigated by showing the connections.

2.According to Goal

a. Basic or Pure Research- is done for the development of theories and principles. It is
conducted for the intellectual pleasure or learning much of this kind of research has been done
in psychology and sociology.The findings from basic research often have little or no applicable
use in the field of criminal justice. However, such research may be used as the foundation for
subsequent applied research and criminal justice policy.

For example; exploring what process was being used by the largest 17 municipal agencies for
psychological pre-employment screening of police officer candidates.
b.Applied Research-is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficacy
of theories and principles. It is concerned with the acquisition of new information for the
purpose of helping develop the scholarly discipline or field of study in which the research is
being conducted.

c.Multipurpose Research-is the scientific inquiry into the issue or problem that could be both
basic and applied research. This type of research generally beginsas basic, but the results are
found to have an applied purpose. For example,level of job satisfaction. From basic perspective,
the data may simply describe how officers perceive satisfaction with different aspects of their
jobs, becoming descriptive in nature. However, the same findings could be used to evaluate the
police agency by examining those areas where satisfaction is the lowest and leading to efforts to
determine how to improve these areas (Dantzker et. al., 2018).

3. According to the level of Investigation

a.Exploratory Research-the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation. It

is designed to describe an existing problem situation and examine the underlying factors that
contribute to the emergence of the problem, the nature of which is not yet well known. This type
of research is loosely structured but valuable methodological strategy.

b. Descriptive Research- the researcher studies the relationships of the variables. It finds
answer to the questions who, what, when, whère, and how. It also aims to describe precisely the
dimensions of a phenomenon. This type of research answers questions like:

✔️What is the average number of police officers in the police stations in Negros Oriental?

✔️What is the average caseload of police investigators in Negros Oriental?

✔️What are the hot spots of carnapping in Dumaguete City? How does a typical crime scene
investigation take place?

Results of descriptive research are also aimed to inform policies. For example, to formulate
information-based programs to curb drug abuse in the country, the Dangerous Drugs Board
(2008) conducted surveys that are aimed to describe the current situation of drug abuse among
Filipinos. Also, a chief of police may ask a report on the hot spots of crime in his jurisdiction on
which police patrol are directed.

c. Experimental research- it studies the effects of the variables in each other.It involves the
administration of research stimuli to participants in a controlled environment.

d.Explanatory Research- Instead of answering questions such as'what is/are' 'how',

explanatory research answers 'why' questions. This type of research, however, may first
describe a phenomenon, say crime, and proceeds to explain why such phenomenon occurs.
Research in criminology and criminal justice abounds with explanatory research. For example,
after a findings that some barangays are hot spots of may use variables such as poverty incidence
or population mobility. While finding that poor neighborhoods have higher violent crime levels
than rich neighborhoods, the researcher may proceed to another 'why' question. This is what
Sampson, Raudenbush and Earls (2007) did: They use the concept of collective efficacy to
explain why such pattern occurs. They defined collective efficacy "as social cohesion among
neighbors combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good"
4.According to type of Analysis

a. Analytical research- the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the
research situation.

b.Holistic research-begins with the total situation. Focusing attention on the system first and
then on its internal relationships.

5.According to Scope

a.Action Research-this type of research is done in a very limited scope to solvea particular
problem. It is an on the job type of problem solving.

6. According to choice of answers to problems

a. Evaluation research- all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most advantageous. Almost every year there is a new program in the
agencies that constitute the criminal justice system. However, in order to avoid wasting
resources by an ineffective program's continued implementation, policymakers and researchers
must evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice programs, whether they achieved what they
intended to achieve.

b. Developmental Research- the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument

of process than has been available.

7.According to Statistical Content

a. Quantitative research- is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the
results of the study. In this study, concepts are assigned numerical value.

b. Qualitative research- the use of quantity or statistics is practically not utilized. Descriptive
data are gathered rather than quantitative data. In this study concepts are viewed as sensitizing
ideas or terms that enhance our understanding.

8.According to time element

a.Historical research-describes what was.

b.Descriptive research-describes what is.

c. Experimental research-describes what will be.

Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)

1.Determining (recognizing) the problem

2.Forming a hypothesis

3.Doing the library search

4.Designing the study

5.Developing the instruments for collecting data

6.Collecting the date

7.Analyzing the data

8.Determining implications and conclusions fro the findings

9.Making recommendations for further research.

Standard format of Thesis Writing

1.The Problem and the Setting

2.Related Literature and Studies

3.Methods of Research and Procedures

4. Analysis,Presentation, and Interpretation of Data

5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations.

Principles of the Scientific Method

✔️Rigid Control - is the manipulation of the research variables.

✔️Objectivity-is that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the result ofinquiry.

✔️Systematic organization - refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as

presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

✔️Rigorous Standards- refers to the setting up of standards or principles which serve as Basis
for the evaluating the findings of a study. This also refers to the accurate statistical computation
and interpretation of qualified data

Researchers use scientific methods in solving problems. But what do we mean by the word
'problem'.? A problem is "anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty
of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not working as well as it
might" (Fraenkel &Wallen,2006). There are two types of problem that researchers attempt to
study and solve-practical and research problem (Booth, Colomb & Williams, 2015).

Practical problems. This is probably your most known problem. Most of the time we encounter
practical problems in the family(e.g. conflict and finances),in work (e.g. backlog of job
assignments), or in any area of your life. In criminology, we see crime as our primary problem.
Booth et al. (2015) thus say:"A practical problem is caused by some condition in the world, from e-
mail spam to terrorism, that makes us unhappy because its costs us time, money, respect, security,
pain, even our lives." Clearly crime is a practical problem. It makes us unhappy because it
endangers our lives and it costs us lots of resources. However, no one study could solve a
practical problem. Instead, researchers solve practical problems by first solving research
problems.

Research problems are problems that are quite conceptual and sometimes hard to
grasp because all of us are used to encountering practical problems, and few ever heard of
research problems. According to Booth et al.(2015), “A research problem is motivated not by
palpable unhappiness, but by incomplete knowledge or flawed understanding." In other words,
research problem pertains to what we do not know about a practical problem. These things that
we do not know answers questions of what, when, where, how and why. Let us take for example
crime as a practical problem. One of the commonly agreed solution to this problem is random
mobile patrol. However, some police officers in Kansas City doubted the effectiveness of this
strategy in reducing crime and improving perceptions of community members towards the
police and fear of crime (Kelling et al. 1974). They did not know (a research problem) whether
this strategy could in fact lead to lower crimes and improved community perceptions. They had
no empirical (based on facts generated by observations) evidence for its effectiveness. Thus,
Kelling et al. (1974) evaluated the effectiveness of random routine patrol of police officers
across the city of

Kansas, USA. They wanted to determine whether intensive random patrol decreases more crime
and achieves more some other measures of police effectiveness than reactive patrol and normal
levels of patrol. They compared three groups of areas: control, reactive, and proactive. In control
areas, they maintained normal levels of patrol; in reactive areas, they did not employ any form
of patrol; and in proactive areas, they increased police visibility two to three times than normal
levels. To their surprise, after one year, they found no significant differences in crime levels and
in other criteria among the three areas, thereby casting doubt on the effectiveness of random
patrol in reducing crime.Perhaps, the problem of random patrol is that it is not systematic and
not directed to high crime areas. Recent experiments in criminology show that hot spots
policing, which are directed to high crime areas, does in fact reduce crime (Braga, Papachristos
& Hureau, 2012). These are the major steps in scientific method that researchers use to solve
research problems.

Attributes of Good Research Problem

✔️S-Specific.Specifically stated

✔️M-Measurable. Easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of data

✔️A-Achievable. Data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at

precise results

✔️R-Realistic. Real results are not manipulated

✔️T-Time-bound. time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the
activity the better

Capsulizing Research Problem into Title

1.It should clearly and specifically stated

2. Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the title

3. Relationship between and among variables should be indicated

4.Target population should be indicated in the title to achieve specificity

5. It should have a maximum of twenty substantive words.

6.Function words should not be placed at the end of each line

7.Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid

Theoretical Framework

✓Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.

✓The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted in the study

Types of Theories

1.Descriptive Theory-seeks to describe a phenomenon

2.Prescriptive Theory-seeks to tell how and sometimes why one should orought to behave in
certain ways

Guidelines in Choosing Theory

✔️Research must be well-founded on universally accepted, known and tested theory, principles
or concepts.

✔️Research may be anchored on several theories available.

Presentation of Theoretical Framework

Ex. The framcwork of the study is anchored on ...................

Conceptual Framework

✔️an illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical framework of the
study

✔️it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or personally

conceptualized by the researcher

Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm

The research paradigmn must clearly show the major impact of the cited theory on the
variables (dependent and independent variables) of the study. An existing theory may be
capsulized in a research paradigm which may be adopted with some modifications.

There must be textual explanations of the variables in the paradigm. Textual explanations
should come before the figure or paradigm.

Assumption and Hypothesis

✔️Assumption-self-evident truth which is based upon known fact or phenomenon,it is not

usually answered or proven because it is assumed true or correct which are beyond the control
of the researcher.
Note: In historical and descriptive researches, it is often times not explicitly expressed but left
implicit, that is, unwritten

✔️Hypothesis - tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to aspecific question.

Types of Hypothesis

1.Descriptive Hypothesis-use to answer descriptive questions

Ex.Sub-problem:

1.What is the profile of the polygraph examiners of law enforcement agencies in terms of:

1.1.age;

1.2.marital status;

1.3.educational attainment; and

1.4.Length of Service

Ex.Hypothesis."Majority of the respondents belong to the age bracket of 30 to 40,male, college

graduate and about 20 years in service."

2.Statistical Hypothesis - use to answer questions on the relationship or differences of data

obtained in descriptive questions.

Forms of Statistical Hypothesis

1.Null Form-always the first temporary solution to a problem; basis of the action of acceptance
or rejection; the word null in mathematics means empty zero;asserts that there is no significant
difference or relationship between the variable;stated in negative

Ex. There is no significant difference between.....................

3.Operational/Alternative (Ha)-stated in affirmative

Three forms of alternative hypothesis:

1.Non-directional Hypothesis-indicates that the researcher is not interested on whether one

variable is greater or lesser than the other, but only in the difference.

Ex.Drug A and Drug B have significant effects on the cure of fever.

Ha:A=B

2.Positive Directional Hypothesis

Ex.Drug A is more effective than Drug B on the treatment of fever.

Ha:A>B

3.Negative Directional Hypothesis

Ex. Drug B is more effective that Drug A on the treatment of fever.

Ha:A<B

Formulating Hypothesis

A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has
been concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and
empirical background of the problem.

Guidelines in the Formulation of Explicit Hypothesis

✔️In experimental investigations, comparative and correlational studies, hypothesis has to be

explicit or expressed.

✔️In descriptive and historical investigations, hypothesis are seldom expressed if not entirely
absent. The specific questions serve as the hypothesis.

✔️Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than
a hypothesis in the operational form.

✔️Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.

Ex.of Statistical Hypothesis

Sub-problem:

✔️Is there any significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents with regards to
the extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment to be accurate results to be
presented as evidence in court in terms of examiner's competency, facility and instrument,
techniques and procedures, and subject's condition?

Hypothesis:

There is no significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents with

regards to the extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment of accurate results
to be presented as evidence in court in terms of examiner's competency, facility and instrument,
techniques and procedures, andsubject's condition.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative Research Design

Involves in depth analysis of the problems. Its focused is to provide accurate description of
problems w/o attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical tools or describe
problems.

Types of Qualitative Research

 1.Historical-systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using the
critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts, which are applicable to
current issues and problems.

2. Ethnographic-aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. Data are gathered through
observation, interview and participation

3. Case Study -intensive investigation of a particular individual, institution, community or

any group considered as a unit which includes the development, adjustment, remedial, or
corrective procedures that suitably follow diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or of
favorable developmnent.

4.Phenomenological-

Quantitative Research Design

Its focused is to describe problems descriptively and numerically. It utilizes more

statistical tests to explain the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of variables.

Types of Quantitative Research

1. Descriptive - describes and interprets WHAT is. It is concerned with conditions or

relationship that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on, effects that
are being felt or trends that are developing.

Sub-types of Descriptive Research

a.Descriptive-Survey - involves collection of information on people, events and other

topics of interest to the researcher.

b. Descriptive-Documentary-involves content analysis because the documentary

technique includes analysis of content. It is used when data cannot be obtained through
questionnaire or observation.

2.Correlational-it measures the extent or magnitude of association between two

variables; measures the existing relationship of variables; also known as Associational Research

3.Experimental - the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent

variables to see the effects on the dependent variables; most commonly used methods to
advanced scientific knowledge.

Sampling Design

A.Scientific Sampling-each member of the population is given the chance of being included in
the sample.

✔️Population - specific aggregation of the elements. Also known as universe Sample -

representative portion of a whole. Subset of apopulation

Types of Scientific Sampling

 1. Restricted Random -applicable only when the population being investigated is
homogenous.

2.Unrestricted Random- the best random sampling design because no restriction is

imposed and every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample

3.Stratified Random-it divides first the population into two or more strata. For each
stratum, the sample items were drawn at random

4. Systematic-a design which all individual in the population are arranged in a methodical
manner, ie. alphabetical or chronological (age,experience) and the name may be selected in the
construction of the sample

5.Multistage-done in several stage, it can be two-stage, three, four or five stage,etc...,

depending on the number of stages of sampling to be used.

6. Cluster Sampling-population is group into clusters or small units, for instance, block or
districts, and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling. Advantageous when
individuals in the districts or blocks belong to the heterogeneous group.

B. Non-Scientific Sampling - in this sampling there is subjectivity on the part of the

researcher because not all the individual in a population are given an equal chance of being
included in the sample

Types of Non-Scientific Sampling

1.Purposive Sampling-based on choosing individuals as sample according to the purposes

of the researcher

2.Incidental Sampling-a design applied to those samples which are takes because they are
most valuable. the researcher simply takes the nearest individual as subjects of the study until
the sample reaches the desired size

3. Quota Sampling-popular in the fieId of opinion research due to the fact that it is done by
merely looking for individuals with requisite characteristics

4.Snowball Sampling-

Research Instrument-a device designed or adopted by researcher for data gathering

Classification of Research Instrument

1.Researcher Instrument - the researcher obtains information or data himself with little
or no direct involvement of the other people

2.Subject Instrument-the information is collected dlirectly from the respondents

3. Informant Instrument-the information or data is collected from those knowledgeable of

the subject matter

Commonly Used Instruments

1.Questionnaire-written or printed form containing the questions to be asked on the
respondents.

Types of Questionnaire

a. Open-Ended - respondents are forced to answer the questions asked in the questionnaire.
Best suited to a qualitative research study

b.Closed-Ended-also referred as guided response type, closed form or restricted;respondent

are guided in answering questions; options may be provided like in multiple choice test while
answers are based on the rating scales provided.

2. Interview-involves face to face contact between the interviewee and theinterviewer

Types of Interview

a. Structured Interview/Standardized-there is a set of carefully prepared questions and their

expected answers are provided

b.Unstructured Interview/Unstandardized-respondents are free to express their opinions.

Also termed as non-directive or informal

3. Observation-may be defined as perceiving data through the sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch
and smell. Sense of sight is the most important and most used. Most direct way and most widely
used in studying behavior.

Types of Observation

a.Formal Observation-researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible responses may

also be outlined

b.Informal Observation-needs critical evaluation of the observation made to avoid biased

results. Recommended for qualitative research

Recording of Results of Observation

✔️Checklist-contains the items to be observed

✔️Rating scale-used in observing behavior

✔️Anecdotal Forms-provides for the fewer breakdowns of dimensions or factors

✔️Mechanical Record-use of motion or still pictures, sound recording

✔️Stenographic Recording

✔️

Qualities of Good Research Instrument

1.Validity-degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure

Types of Validity
 a. Content-Related Validity - refers to content and format of the instrument which must
answer the following criteria: appropriateness; logical; adequate; and, proper format; expert
judgment; table of specification

b.Criterion-Related Validity-refers to the relationship between scores obtained using

one or more instruments or measures.

c. Construct-Related Validity - refers to the nature of psychological construction or

characteristics being measured by the instrument

2. Reliability- extent to which the instrument is dependable, self-consistent and stable;

consistency of responses from moment to moment; even a person takes the same test twice, the
test yields the same results; reliable test may not always be valid

3.Usability-otherwise known as Practicability. Degree to which the research instrument can be

satisfactorily used. It may be determined thru:

a.ease of administration

b.ease of scoring

c.ease of interpretation

d.low cost

e. proper mechanical make up

Statistics-science which deals with the systematic process of collecting, organizing, classifying,
presenting, interpreting and analyzing data

Types of Statistics

A.Descriptive Statistics - it is used to determine the nature of variables without any attempt
tcritically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables.

Tools of Descriptive Statistics

1.Frequency Counting/Distribution

2.Percentage

3.Ranking

4.Measures of Centralities

a. Mean

b. Median

c. Moded.

d. Measures of Variability
B.Correlational Statistics-used to determine the degree or magnitude of association between
two variables. Treats bivariate and multivariate problems

✔️Specific Measures of Correlational

✔️Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson r)

✔️Spearman Rank-Order Coefficient of Correlation (Spearman rho)

✔️Kendall's Tau Coefficient of Correlation

✔️Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance W

✔️Point Biserial Coefficient of Correlation

✔️Phi Coefficient of Correlation

C.Inferential Statistics-Used when in making inferences on the magnitude of differences of the

samples from a large universe; Used in testing hypothesis like differences bet. two or more
variables; Treats bivariate and multivariate problems

Types of Inferential Statistics

1.Parametric Test-applicable when the data measured is in interval or ratio scales

Types of Parametric

a. T-Test and Z-Test-used to determine two variable means which differs significantly

b. F-test-(Analysis of Variance - ANNOVA) used to determine significant differences between

three or more variables

2.Non-Parametric = used in ordinal or rank or nominal data

Types of Non-parametric

a. Chi-Square Test (X2)-used to compare the frequencies obtained in categorized variables.

Used to determine the difference between three or more variables

b.Mann-Whitney U-Test

c.Sign Test

d.Lambda

e. Kruskall-Wallis

f.Friedman Analysis of Variance

g.McNemar Test

Data Analysis - an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute, trait,
pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which involve
statistical techniques and procedures
Types of Data Analysis

1.Univariate - tests a single variable to determine whether the sample is similar to th

2. Bivariate-it tests two variables on how they differ from each other

3. Multivariate-it tests three or more independent variables at a time on the degree of

relationship with dependent variables

4. Normative-the results of the study is compared with the norm

5.Status - stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of subjects chosen for
study

6. Descriptive - describes the characteristics, compositions, structures that occur as units

within the larger structure

7. Classification - analysis which is usually employed in natural science subjects

8.Evaluative-it appraises carefully the worthiness of the current study

9.Comparative-the researcher considers at least two entities and establishes a formal

procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude
which of the two is better

10.Cost-Effective-applicable in comparing the cost between two or more variables and to

determine which of the variable is most effective

Interpretation of Data-an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is done to give

meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised in the study

Levels of Interpretation

✔️Table Reading

✔️Implications or Meaning of Data

✔️Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results are to be compared with the existing
knowledge or finished studies

Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)

1.Determining(recognizing) the problem

2.Forming a hypothesis

3.Doing the library search

4.Designing the study

5.Developing the instruments for collecting data

6.Collecting the date

7.Analyzing the data

8. Determining implications and conclusions fro the findings

9.Making recommendations for further research.

Standard format of Thesis Writing

1.The Problem and the Setting

2.Related Literature and Studies

3.Methods of Research and Procedures

4. Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data

5.Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

Principles of the Scientific Method

✔️Rigid control-is the manipulation of the research variables.

✔️Objectivity - is that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the result ofinquiry.

✔️Systematic organization - refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as

presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

✔️Rigorous standards-refers to the setting up of standards or principles which serve as Basis for
the evaluating the findings of a study. This also refers to the accurate statistical computation
and interpretation of qualified data

RESEARCH FORMAT

Preliminary Pages

a.Title Page

b.Approval Sheet

c. Acknowledgment

d.Dedicatione.

e. Table of Contents

f.List of Tables

g.List of Figures

h.Abstract

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction. Discussion of the problem. What the problem is all about; May include
supporting articles to justify the study; Discussion of the rational and objectives for conducting
the study

Background of the Study. Historical background of the present study; Locality of the study.
(Place where the study is to be conducted); Basis or justification for conducting the study.

Theoretical Framework. Citing theories, articles or policy that would support the present
study.

Conceptual Framework. Illustration and discussion on the conceptual foundation of the study.

Statement of the Problem. General and specific statement of the problem determined in the
study.

Assumption or Hypothesis. Self-evident truth based upon known fact or phenomenon

(Assumption); Tentative conclusion or answer to specific questions (Hypothesis)

Significance of the Study. Contribution of the result of the study to individuals, institutions,
administrators, society,etc...

Scope and Limitation of the Study. Boundaries in terms of the subject of the study, time,
sample respondents, and location (Scope); Weakness of the study beyond the control of the
researcher (Limitation).

Definition of Terms. It can be lexical or operational definition or a combination thereof of

different terms used in the study which are arranged alphabetically.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Foreign Literature. Published articles from foreign countries

Local Literature. Locally published articles

Foreign Studies.Foreign unpublished articles

Local Studies.Locally unpublished articles

Synthesis. Relevance of literature and studies to the present research

Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research Method. Brief description and justification of the research method used in the study

Population and Sampling Scheme. Brief presentation of the entire population of the study and
the type of sampling techniques used in selecting sample respondents

Description of the Respondents. Contains detailed description of the respondents as to age,

sex, marital status, nature of employment, etc...
Research Instrument. Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data was develop
as well as its detailed description.

Validation of Instrument. States brief discussion on how the instrument was validated;
Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject matter but are not
part of the respondents of the study

Procedures in Gathering Data. Contains the step by step procedures used by the researcher in
reaching the respondents in order to gather data

Statistical Treatment. Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance with the
specific problem and hypothesis to be teste

EVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Foreign Literature. Published articles from foreign countries

Local Literature. Locally published articles

Foreign Studies. Foreign unpublished articles

Local Studies. Locally unpublished articles

Synthesis. Relevance of literature and studies to the present research

Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research Method. Brief description and justification of the research method used in the study

Population and Sampling Scheme. Brief presentation of the entire population of the study and
the type of sampling techniques used in selecting sample respondents

Description of the Respondents. Contains detaied description of the respondents as to age,

sex, marital status, nature of employment, etc...

Research Instrument. Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data was develop
as well as its detailed description.

Validation of Instrument. States brief discussion on how the instrument was validated;
Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject matter but are not
part of the respondents of the study

Procedures in Gathering Data. Contains the step by step procedures used by the researcher in
reaching the respondents in order to gather data

Statistical Treatment. Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance with the
specific problem and hypothesis to be tested.