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CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1 and 2
Prepared by:
Micho V. Manalo, RCrim.
Excellence in Criminological Research Awardee
Regional Research Champion
Meaning of Research
Etymology of Research: the word research is derived from
the Middle French “reserche” means “to go about seeking”;
the word itself derived from the Old French term “recerchier
= re + cerchier” menaing “to search”
• scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that inks man's speculation
with reality.
• systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical proposition about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena.
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
A. According to Purpose
• Predictive or Prognostic Research - has the purpose
of determining the future operation of the variables
under investigation with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better
• Directive Research - determines what should be
done based on the findings this is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condition, if there is any
• Illuminative Research - is concerned with the
interaction of the components of the variable being
investigated, as for example, interaction of the
components of educational systems and aims to
show the connections among, for example,
students' characteristics, organizational pattern
and policies, and educational consequences B.
According to Goal
• Basic or pure Research - is done for the
development of theories and Principles.
• Applied Research - is the application of the results
of pure search. This is testing the efficacy of
theories and principles. aims to test theories and
concepts developed for verification, application,
development and support and their relationship to
the existing fund of knowledge
C. According to the Level of Investigation
• Exploratory Research - the researcher studies the
variables pertinent to a specific situation.
• Descriptive Research - the researcher studies the
relationships of the variables.
• Experimental Research - the experiment studies
the effects of the variables on each other.
D. According to the Type of Analysis
• Analytical Research - the researcher attempts to
identify and is isolate the components of the
research situation.
• Holistic Research - begins with the total situation.
Focusing attention on the system first and then on
its internal relationships.
E. According to Scope - Under this category is Action
Research.
• This type of research is done on a very limited scope
to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It
is almost problem solving.
F. According to Choice of Answers to Problems
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such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
• In Evaluation research, all possible courses of
action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
• In developmental research, the focus is on finding
or developing a more suitable instrument or
process than has been available.
G. According to Statistical Content
• Quantitative or statistical research - is one in which
inferential statistics are utlized to determine the
results of the study. Inferential statistics such as
correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc.
are used to test the hypothesis. This type of
research usually includes comparison studies,
cause-andeffect relationships, etc.
• Non-quantitative research - This is research in
which the use of the quantity or statistics is
practically nil. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where description is
usually used.
• Descriptive data are gathered rather than
quantitative data.
H. According to Time Element
• Historical research describes what was.
• Descriptive research describes what is.
• Experimental research describes what will be.
Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)
1. Determining (recognizing) the problem
2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Doing the library search
4. Designing the study
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data
6. Collecting the date
7. Analyzing the data
8. Determining implications and conclusions from the
findings
9. Making recommendations for further research.
Standard format of Thesis Writing
1. The Problem and the Seting
2. Related Literature and Studies
3. Methods of Research and Procedures 4. Analysis,
Presentation, and Interpretation of Data 5. Summary,
Conclusions, and Recommendations.
Attributes of Good Research Problem (SMART)
• S= Specific - specifcally stated
• M = Measurable - easy to measure by using
research instrument in collection of data
• A = Achievable - data are achievable using correct
statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at precise
results
• R = Realistic - real results are not manipulated
• T= Time-bound - time frame is required in every
activity because the shorter completion
of the activity the better
Plagiarism Vs Copyright Infringement
• Plagiarism is an act of incorporating into one's work
the work of another without indicating the source
• an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas,
writings, and statements of others without giving
due credit
• Copyright Infringement – use of works protected by
the copyright law without permission. Infringing
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the rights of the owner such as rights to reproduce,
distribute, display or perform the protected work or
make derivative works.
Theoretical Framework
• Theoretical framework is the foundation of the
study.
• The theory should have a relationship with the
issues posted in the study
Guidelines in choosing theory
• Research must be well-founded on universally
accepted, known and tested theory, principles or
concepts.
• Research may be anchored on several theories
available.
Conceptual Framework – illustration of how research
problems are generated from the theoretical framework
of the study; it may be some sort of modification of the
theoretical framework or personally conceptualized by
the researcher.
Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm
• The research paradigm must clearly show the
major impact of an existing theory may be
capsulized in a research paradigm which may be
adopted with some modifications.
• 3. There must be textual explanations of the
variables in the paradigm.
Assumption and Hypothesis
• Assumption = self-evident truth which is based
upon known fact or phenomenon. it is not usually
answered or proven because it is assumed true or
correct which are beyond the control of the
researcher.
• Hypothesis = tentative conclusion or answer to
specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation. It is an educated guess about the
answer to a specific question.
Research Instrument - a device designed or adopted by
researcher for data gathering.
Classification of Research Instrument
• Researcher Instrument = the researcher obtains
information or data himself with little or no direct
involvement of the other people
• Subject Instrument = the information is collected
directly from the Respondents
• Informant Instrument = the information or data is
collected from those
knowledgeable of the subject matter
Commonly Used Instruments
• Questionnaire = written or printed form containing
the questions to be asked on the respondents.
Types of Questionnaires
• Open-Ended = respondents are forced to answer
the questions asked in the questionnaire; best
suited to a qualitative research study
• Closed-Ended = also referred as guided response
type, closed form or restricted; respondents are
guided in answering questions options may be
provided like in multiple choice test while answers
are based on the rating scales provided Interview -
involves face to face contact between
The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
the interviewee and the interviewer
Types of Interview
• Structured Interview = there is a set of carefuly
prepared questions and their expected answers are
provided
• Unstructured Interview = respondents are free to
express their opinions - also termed as non-
directive or informal Observation - may be defined
as perceiving data through the sense: sight,
hearing, taste, touch and smell =sense of sight is
the most important and most used - most direct
way and most widely used in studying behavior
Types of Observation
• Formal Observation = researcher makes a guide on
what to observe. Possible responses may also be
outlined
• Informal Observation = needs critical evaluation of
the observation made to avoid biased results =
recommended for
qualitative research
Qualities of Good Research Instrument
1. Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument
measures what it intends to
measure
Types of Validity
• Content-Related Validity = refers to content
and format of the instrument which must
answer the following criteria: appropriateness;
logical; adequate, and, proper format
• Criterion-Related Validity = refers to the
relationship between scores obtained using one
or more instruments or measures
• Construct-Related Validity = refers to the
nature of psychological construction or
characteristics being measured by the
instrument
Reliability - extent to which the instrument is
dependable, sell-consistent and stable consistency of
responses from moment to moment = even a person
takes the same test twice, the test yields the same
results - reliable
test may not always be valid
Usability = otherwise known as Practicability
• degree to which the research instrument can
be satisfactorily used.
Levels of Interpretation
• Table Reading
• Implications or Meaning of Data
• Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the
results are to be compared with the existing
knowledge or finished studies
APA 7TH EDITION
General APA Guidelines
The new AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION, revised new points in their 7th edition in
October 2019.
Basic Guidelines that must be followed:
• Double-spaced
• Standard-sized paper (8.5” x 11”)
• 1” margins – all sides
• Includes Page Header or also known as
Running Head at the top of every page
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1. Student paper only includes page • Methods
number – FLUSH RIGHT • Results
2. Professional paper – includes title page • Data analysis
in the FLUSH RIGHT and • Conclusions
title of the paper in the FLUSH LEFT
• Possible implications Other important note:
• Paper’s title cannot exceed 50 characters including • Single paragraph
spacing and punctuation (applicable in the running • Double-spaced
head). • Not more than 250 words
• Keywords are necessary (italicized)
FONTS Note: Abstracts are common in scholarly journal articles and
• Must be accessible or legible are not typically required for student papers unless advised
• Must be consistent by an instructor.

FONT STYLES:
• 11-point Calibri
• 11-point Arial
• 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode
• 12-point Times New Roman
• 11-point Georgia
• 10-point Computer Modern Major Paper Sections:
• Title Page
• Abstract
• Main Body
• References
Title Page
The title page must contain:
APA CITATION – BASIC
• Title of the paper In-text citation is formally known as “Parenthetical
• Author’s name Citation” which follows the author-date method. Meaning,
• Institutional affiliation the surname of the author must come first and year of
• Course Number publication in the succeeding space. When you are referring
• Instructor name to an idea that comes from another work but not directly
quoting the material – only use the author-date method.
• Assignment due date For Professional Paper:
However, when quoting a direct work, always include the
page number (p. or pp.)
Include the author’s note (located beneath the institutional
affiliation, in the bottom half of the title page
In using signal phrases, one should use the past tense or
1. Author Note:
present perfect tense (for example, Jones (1998) found or
1. Professional papers being submitted for
publication should include an author note Jones (1998) has found...).
on the title page. The note should be
Example:
formatted into separate paragraphs and
(Manalo, 2022, p. 12); (Manalo, 2022, pp.12-15)
include the following information. Refer to
A WORK BY ONE AUTHOR
the APA 7 Publication Manual (2020) for
It still uses the same manner or methodology "AUTHOR-
detailed information about what to include
DATE”.
in each section (pp. 35-36).
1. In the first paragraph, provide • As Manalo (2022) mentioned…
each authors’ ORCID ID • (Manalo, 2022)
2. In the second paragraph, provide
A WORK BY TWO AUTHORS
information about any authors’
changes in affiliation since the • As Apuya and Manalo (2022)
study began. • (Apuya & Manalo, 2022)
3. In the third paragraph, provide
acknowledgements and A WORK BY THREE OF MORE AUTHORS
disclosures. Note: In et al., et should not be followed by a period. Only
"al" should be followed by a period.
Abstract • Based on the study conducted by Manalo et al.
Begin a new page. The word abstract shall be placed in the (2022)
center and in BOLD manner. All research information must • (Manalo et al., 2022)
not have any italics, underlining, or quotation marks. • Jones, Smith, Liu, Huang, and Kim (2020)
This section must be concise summary points taken from
• Jones, Smith, Ruiz, Wang, and Stanton
your research paper. Important note that
(2020)
•
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MUST NOT BE INDENTED.
UNKNOWN AUTHORS
Abstract must contain the following:
• (Anonymous, 2022) – utilize only when the
• Research topic resources specifically stated that the author is
• Research questions anonymous.
• Participants
The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
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• If so happened that the work has no author, cite 3. Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead
the source by its title or use the first two words in of 7) should be provided in the reference entry.
the parenthesis
SHORT QUOTATIONS
• If you are directly quoting from a work, you will
need to include the author, year of publication, and
page number for the reference (preceded by "p." for 4. DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label
a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple pages, “DOI:” is no longer necessary.
with the page numbers separated by an en dash). 5. URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,”
unless a retrieval date is needed. The
EXAMPLE:
According to Jones (1998), "students often had difficulty
using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p.
199) website name is included (unless it’s the same as
the author)
LONG QUOTATIONS
Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free- Inclusive and bias-free language
standing block of typewritten lines and omit quotation
marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch Writing inclusively and without bias is the new standard,
from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin and APA’s new publication manual contains a separate
a new paragraph chapter on this topic.
The guidelines provided by APA help authors reduce bias
Footnotes, Headnotes, and Endnotes around topics such as gender, age, disability, racial and
A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or ethnic identity, and sexual orientation, as well as being
footer. They are referenced in the text in the same way as a sensitive to labels and describing individuals at the
citation i.e. the referenced text is followed by a superscript appropriate level of specificity. Some examples include:
numeral (1), which corresponds to the numbered footnote
at the bottom of the page. When writing your research The singular “they” is endorsed as a genderneutral
paper, you would use a footnote for two major reasons: pronoun.
1. To cite sources of facts or quotations
2. Provide additional information Instead of using adjectives as nouns to label groups of
people, descriptive phrases are preferred.
The two types of footnotes are:
• Content: Supplements or simplifies substantive
information; not detailed.
• Instead of broad categories, you should use exact age
• Copyright permission: Cites quoted text and any ranges that are more relevant and specific.
reprinted materials used in the text.
Endnotes
Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they
are placed at the end your research paper instead of at the
bottom of a page. In books, they can be placed after each
APA Paper format
chapter or at the end of the book.
In many cases, the book publisher decides the best In the 7th edition, APA decided to provide different paper
placement. Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted format guidelines for professional and student papers. For
in superscript. The format is the same as that for footnotes. both types, a sample paper is included. Some notable
Headnotes changes include:
Headnotes are used as introductions in legal documents or
as summaries of the text that follows them. In academic Increased flexibility regarding fonts: options include Calibri
writing, headnotes are explanatory notes included with 11, Arial 11, Lucida Sans Unicode 10, Times New Roman
tables and figures. They are placed below the table itself or 12, and Georgia 11.
just below the figure title and typed in a font size that is
smaller than the main text (e.g., 8- or 10-point font).
Headnotes are used to define acronyms used, units of The running head on the title page no longer includes the
measure, significance, etc. Because tables and figures words “Running head:”. It now contains only a page
should be able to “stand alone” without the main text, number and the (shortened) paper title.
headnotes should always be used.
MAJOR CHANGES THAT 7TH EDITION PROVIDED TO
EXECUTE YOUR PAPER PRIM AND PROPER:

1. The publisher location is no longer included in the

reference. PARTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER

Title:
• Subject and Scope
• No Abbreviation
2. The APA in-text citation for works with three or • Variables
more authors is now shortened right from the first • 10-15 words
citation. You only include the first author’s name
and “et al.”.
The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
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CHAPTER 1 3. Correlational – deals with the relationship of two
distinct variables
Introduction/Background of the Study  Positive Correlation – p-value of less than
a. Introduction of the topic (Carl’s Model) 0.05
b. Relate to current knowledge  Negative Correlation – p-value of more than
c. Indicate the research gaps 0.05
4. Survey – information collected from the group ➢
Conceptual Framework Large number – Population
a. Visual representation or relationship between  Small Number – Respondents
variables 5. Secondary Data Analysis – existing database
• Independent Variable (no respondents)
• Dependent Variable
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Determining the Goal of the Study 1. Ethnography – studies the culture and social
a. Purpose of the Study – Infinitive Form system; description and interpretation of a cultural
b. Statement of the Problem – Interrogative or social group; focuses on the pattern of actions
Form 2. Phenomenology – studies the lived experiences;
conducts long interviews
• Transcendental – obtain unbiased description
Hypothesis of the raw data
a. Tentative answer that must be tested • Hermeneutic – opinion of the researcher is
• Two Types of Hypotheses ➢ prominent to interpret the meaning
Null (H-Naught) 3. Case study – single entity; a detailed study of a
➢ Alternative (H sub 1) specific subject, such as a person, group, place,
event, organization, or phenomenon.
Assumption: 4. Grounded Theory – studying phenomenon in
a. No test necessary since this is presumptively forming theories
believed to be true.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Significance of the Study
 Basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of
 Studies importance to sectors it may be beneficial an unknown piece of information
Scope and Limitation PROBABILITY SAMPLING – every member has equal
 Scope or Delimitation are those factors that are chances
controlled by the researchers; the factors that the  Simple Random Sampling – literal equal chance
researchers establish to provide boundaries
 Systematic – selection of every Kth of population
 Limitation/s are considered out of control  Stratified – dividing the population into
subgroups/strata
Definition of Terms
 Cluster – dividing the population into sections then
 Constitutive/Conceptual = solely defined by
selecting a group to serve as the respondents
dictionaries
 Convenience/Chance/Accidental/Grab Sampling
 Operational/Functional = the definition is
depending upon how the study uses the term
NON-PROBABILITY – careful consideration in
choosing respondents/participants
Chapter 2:
Review of Related Literature and Studies
 Purposive Sampling – choosing based on the goals
of the study; at least 3 criteria aligned to the goals
 Related Literatures are generally those that of the study.
published
 Quota Sampling – proportions of the groups in the
 Related Studies are generally the works that are population
unpublished
 Snowball – respondents/participants of this study
Chapter: Experimental Designs is tasked to recruit members inconsideration of
prize
Quantitative: Using numbers, statistics – statistically
minimum of 30 respondents
Qualitative: data are in form of words – minimum of 1
participants: 50 maximum participants
QUANTITAIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental Design:
1. True Experimental Design – random assignment of
participants; equal chances; used in large
populations
2. Quasi-experimental – no random assignment
Non-experimental Designs
1. Descriptive – simple qualitative summary
2. Comparative – differences between tow groups
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such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
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LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT No. of Solved Cases
Scales of Level of Measurement CSE = x 100%
Total No. of Reported Cases
True Set Order Categorization
Zero Interval
2. Crime Rate – the number of incidents in a given
period of time for every 100,000 population
Ratio
Crime Volume
x
CR =
100,000
Population
Interval 3. Average Monthly Crime Rate – the average number
of crime incidents occurred per month for every
Ordinal 100,000 inhabitants in a certain area.
(Crime
Volume
x divided by no. of
AMCR =
Nominal 100,000) months
(Population

4. Variance (or %change) – one way of analyzing

crime trends; measures the percentage change
every over a given period
of time
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: Current Data - Previous Data x
Previous Data 100
 Mean – sum all the digits then divided by the total
number of values
 Median – middle number 5. Crime Analysis
 Mode – most frequent value appearing a. Percentage Share of Crime Volume of
a Certain Area
Chapter IV
Crime Analysis
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
CV of Certain Area
 Contains the answer to all the sub-problems of the a. % share of CV of certain area = x
study
CV Nationwide 100%
 Answers the presented through textual and tabular
b. Percentage Share of the Occurrences
Chapter V of a type of crime
Total No. of
CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATION Occurrences of a type of
b. % share of
crime x
Conclusions occurences of a type of
100%
crime =
 Written in past tense crime volume
nationwide
 Should be based on the findings of the study
 Should not contain any numerals from the findings References:
 Organized and categorized according to the sub-
problems Purdue OWL. (n.d.). APA Formatting and Style
Recommendations
Guide (7th Edition). Purdue University.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_cita
 An appeal to people or institutions of solve the tion/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_gui
problems discovered in the study
de/index.html
 Practicable and attainable Ventura, R. & Viola, A. (2022). Comprehensive
CRIME AND STATISTICS
Review Guide to Criminology: Correctional
 Refers to the measure of level or amount of crimes
 Uses the term index and non-index crimes Administration and Criminology. Ultimate Learning
Index Crimes -crimes that significantly occurs regularly; Series.
crimes against persons and property

Non-Index Crimes – violation of special laws and

other crimes against moral and order Statistics
Formula:
1. Crime Solution Efficiency – percentage of solved
cases out of the total number of reported crimes
incidents. It is the general measure of law
enforcement agency’s investigative capability of
efficiency
The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.