, ,

2005 2008 .
() ,

.
( )
,
.

Georg Cantor
.
20/4/2012

1.1
; Cantor
. Cantor

m .

x x
x . x
x
x .
x ( x )
G. Peano 1

Giuseppe Peano Guneo Piemonte 27

1858. 1876,
1860 Angelo Genocchi
. 1884 , 200 , , - ,
Genocchi. 1886 f ( x, y ) , -

dy
= f ( x, y ) . dx

. 1888 Geometrical Calculus, , . , ,

.
. 1889
, . 1890
,
[0,1] [0,1] [0,1] . F. Hausdorff 1914
Peano
.

Formulario , 300
.
Formulario 1908.

2
,
. :
- :
- ( , ) :
.
-
[ , ]
-
...
, : A = {1, 2, 3} . ,
.
. (1, 4) ,
1 4
(1, 4) = { x / x 1 < x < 4}
1 ( = ) 2
.
Formulario , ,
, .
G. Peano. ( ) , ,
Cantor, Russell, Frege, Gdel-
. , , Gian Carlo Rota, Peano
, .
1903
, (Latino
sine flexione), . 20
1932.
2

3
= ( x x )
( )
,
, .
( x x ) ( x x )

2 .
.
= { x / x x} .
1.2
,
(Union) ,
, x x x

= { x / x x } .

1. (0, 3) (2, 5) = (0,5)

2. (0, 3) [3, 5) = (0, 5)
3. (0, 3] [3, 5) = (0,5)

4. (0,3) (3,5) = { x / x

0 < x < 5 x 3}

1 , ,
1. =
( )
2. ( ) = ( )
( )
3. =
4. =
5. = , = =

4
3 1. x x x x x
x
2. x ( ) x x
x ( x x )
( x x ) x
x x
x ( )
3. x x x x
4. .
5. .
1.3
, (Intersection) ( )
, x x x ,

= { x / x x } .
,
.
.

1. (0, 3) (2, 5) = (2, 3)

2. (0, 3) [3, 5) =
3. (0,3] [3,5) = {3}
4. (0, 3) (3,5) =

1 1. =
.
3

2. = ( )
3. ( ) = ( ) ( )
4. ( ) = ( ) ( )
( )
5. ( ) = ( ) ( )
( )
1.
2. x x x x x x
3. x ( ) x x
x ( x x )
( x x ) x
x x
x ( )
4. x ( ) x x
x ( x x )
( x x ) ( x x )
x x
x ( ) ( )
5. x ( ) x x
x ( x x )
( x x ) ( x x )
x x
x ( ) ( )

1.4
1 ,
(difference) ( ) ,
.

1. =

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

=
( ) = ( ) ( )
( ) = ( ) ( )
=
( ) = ( ) ( )
( ) = ( ) ( )

1,2
3. x ( ) x x
x ( x x )
x (( x ) ( x ))
[ x ( x )] [ x ( x )]
[ x x ] [ x x ]
x ( ) x ( )
x ( ) ( )
4. x ( ) x x
x ( x )
x ( x x )
x [( x ) ( x )]
[ x ( x )] [( x ( x )]
( x x ) ( x x )
x ( ) x ( )
x ( ) ( )
5. ( ) x x , x ,
, . x x , .
( ) , x x ,
, .

7
6.
x ( ) x x
( x x ) x
( x x ) ( x x )
x x
x ( ) ( )

7.
x ( ) x x
( x x ) x
( x x ) ( x x )
x x
x ( ) ( )

U , .
( c ) :
2 U , c = U

2 1. ( c )c =
2. ( )c = c c
3. ( )c = c c
4. = c ( 3 4 De Morgan 4 )
Augustus De Morgan, George Boole - - .
De Morgan 27 1806 , . Trinity,
.
, .

1.
x ( c )c x c x U ( x U )
( x ) (( x )) x
2.

x ( ) x
c

( x x )
( x x )
( x ) ( x )
x c x c
x c c
3.
. (22 ) . ,

(1831), , . 18 1871
.
George Boole 2 1815 Lincoln . De Morgan, , . , , Laplace Lagrange. De
Morgan, .
,
De Morgan (1847). (1854), , , Boole
. Bertrand Russell 19 . Boole Queens
Cork. , .
19 G. Cantor, Boole.
49 8 1864 .

9
x ( ) x
c

( x x )
( x x )
( x ) ( x )
x c x c
x c c
4.
x x x
x x c
x c

1.5
1
,
, x
x . =
2

,

1 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. =
7. =

10

8. =
9. =
1. x x x ,
5

5. x x x x ,
6. = , x x ,
x x x , x x ,
.
, x x ,
x x x x ,
= .
7. = , x x ,
x x x , x x
.
, x x ,
x x x ,
= .
8. , = .
9. , = .
3 ,
( ) .
( ) .

, ,
1.8 21,
.

11
1.6
1 ,
( , Symmetric Difference) ,

= ( ) ( )

1 1. = =
2. =
3. = ( ) ( )
4. = ( ) ( )
1.
= ( ) ( ) =

= =

=
2,3,4

1.7
{ x , y} .
, , ,
( x , y ) . , C. Kuratowski 6
Kazimierz Kuratowski 2 1896
18 1980.
.

1921. , Waslaw Sierpinski, . 1935
, 1952. 1948
1967 -

12
1 ( x , y ) = { x ,{ x , y}}

( x, y ) = ( z , w ) x = z y = w .
.
{{ x} ,{ x, y}} = {{ z} ,{ z, w}} , { x} {{ z} , { z, w}} , { x} = { z}

{ x} = { z, w} . {{ x} , { x, y}} = {{ x} , { x, w}} ,
{ x, y} {{ x} , { x, w}} , { x, y} = { x}
{ x, y} = { x, w} . x = y = z = w ,
. y = w ,
x = z y = w . x = z = w ,

{{ x} ,{ x, y}} = { x} , x = y = z = w , .

,
...
2 ( x, y , z ) = ( x, ( y , z ))
( x, y, z , w) = ( x, ( y, z , w))
. Scottish Cafe
Lvov, , Scottish Book.
Fundamenta Mathematica.
:

Zorn-Kuratowski
Kuratowski

Tarki-Kuratowski



,
Mostowski

13
( x1 , x2 ,..., x +1 ) = ( x1 , ( x2 , x3 ,..., x +1 ))

2 1. ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( y1 , y2 , y3 ) x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 , x3 = y3
2. ( x1 , x2 ,..., x ) = ( y1 , y2 ,..., y )
x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 ,..., x = y
3

,
= {( x, y ) / x y }

3 = = , = ,
1 = 2 = ,, = ,
1 2

4 1. ( ) = ( ) ( )
2. ( ) = ( ) ( )
3. ( ) = ( ) ( )
4. ( ) = ( ) ( )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. , , ,
= , = =

14
1. ( x, y ) ( ) x y
x ( y y )
( x y ) ( x y )
( x, y ) ( x, y )
( x, y ) ( ) ( )
2,3,4.
5. ( x, y ) x y x y
( x, y )
6,7,8.
9. ( x, y ) ( x, y ) ,
x x y y ,
= =
4 = ( ) ,
= ( )
1 2 +1 = 1 ( 2 +1 )
( ) = ( ) ,
(( , ), ) ( , ( , )) .

1.8 -
1 ,
. ( x, y ) ,
x y ( x) = y ( x, y ) x y .
= ,
( , ) .
,
( dom ( ) )

dom( ) = { x / x y , x y}
( rng ( ) )

15

rng ( ) = { y / y x , x y}
2 ,
1 ( 1 )

( y, x) 1 ( x, y )
1
1

1 . dom( ) = rng ( 1 )
. rng ( ) = dom( 1 )
. ( 1 )1 =
2 9

,
3 , ,
.


( ) ,

,
4 , ,
( , )

<
,
< .
5 ,
= , .

16
( )
= .
6 , ,
.

.
7 ,
, (

, )

<
, , < < .
8 , ,
, . .
1. = ,
. = ,
.
, .
, , , .
2. ,
.
9 , , .
1.

17

mod , 2 . ,
.
2. C Caushy .
C an bn lim(an bn ) = 0 .
n

.
3.
: x y x y .
.
Vitali 7 , .
10 ,
, , ,
[ ] .

[ / ] .
1, 0,
1, ...
1 , .

Giuseppe Vitali, 26 1875.

, 4
,
, ,
. .

. . 29 1932 .

18
11 8
f : ,
x y f ( x) = y
x y f ( x) = y f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) , x1 x2
x1 , x2 .
y = f ( x ) y ( ) x . f ( x ) , x
f ( ) .
f : D ( f ) .
,
x y y = x

, f xfy y = x

,
.
12 f : g : , f = g
= , = f ( x) = g ( x) , x
f :

2 , ,
.

13 f : ,
(1-1) , :
f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) x1 = x2 , x1 , x2
Introductio
in analysin infinitorum Euler (1784). ,
, Peano. : ., ., . , .123-125.
8

19

x1 x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) , x1 , x2
f :
f : f ( x) = x 2 .

f ( x) = x 3 (1-1),

14 f : , ,
y x f ( x ) = y f ( ) = .
f : f ( x) = x 2 ,
f : [0, + ) f ( x) = x 2 .
15 f : , , .

1. f : f ( x) = x 3

2. g : ( , ) g ( x) = x
2 2
3. h : (0, + ) h( x) = ln x .
16 f : 1 , g : 1 g ( x) = f ( x) , x 1
f 1 , f g .

3 f : ,
f 1


f : (, 0) (0, + ) f ( x) = x 2 f 1 : (0, +) (, 0)
f 1 ( x ) = x

20
17 i : i ( x) = x , x
18 I G .
a : I G G I .
a (i ) ai , ai , i I .
G ,
.

19

= {x / j I x } x
j

jI

jI

j I x j
20

jI

= x /( x j ) ( j I x j )
jI

x j x j j I .
jI

1
1. ( ,1] = (0,1] ,

= { /

> 1}

1
1
x ( ,1] , > 1 x ( ,1] ,

1
1
< x 1 , 0 < x 1 , x (0,1] .

1
1
x (0,1] , ( lim = 0 ) 1 < x 1 ,

1
x ( ,1]

21
2.

(1 + ,1 ) = (1,1)

1
1
x (1 + ,1 ) , > 1

1
1
1
1
x (1 + ,1 ) , 1 < 1 + < x < 1 < 1 ,

x ( 1,1) x ( 1,1) , x + 1 > 0 1 x > 0

1
1
( lim = 0 ) 1 , 2 1
< x + 1

1
1
1
1
< 1 x 0 = max{ 1 , 2 } ,
< x + 1
< 1 x ,

0
1
1
1
1
1 + < x < 1 , x (1 + ,1 ) .

0
0
1
3.

( , ) =

( , ) x

x , x x x , = x 1 < x < x + 1 =
x

( , )

4.

1 1

( , ) = {0}

1 1
0 ( , )

1 1
1
1
( , ) , , < < ,

1
1
lim( ) lim lim , 0 0 , = 0 .

5.

( , ) = {0}

22

1. ( i ) = ( i )
iI

iI

2. ( i ) = ( i )
iI

iI

3. ( i ) ( j ) =
iI

jJ

4. ( i ) ( j ) =
iI

jJ

( i j )

( i j )

( i , j )I J

( i , j )I J

5. ( i ) ( i ) = ( i i )
iI

iI

iI

6. ( i ) ( i ) = ( i i )
iI

iI

iI

( ) ( ) ( )
8. ( ) ( ) ( )
x ( ) x x
7.

iI

iI

iI

1.

iI

iI

iI

iI

iI

x (i I , x i )
i I , x i
x ( i )
iI

2. x ( i ) x (i I x i )
iI

(i I x x i )
(i I x i )
x ( i )
iI

3. x ( i ) ( j ) x i x j
iI

jJ

iI

jJ

(i I x i ) ( j J x j )
[(i, j ) I J ( x i x j )]

( i , j )I J

( i j )

23
4. x ( i ) ( j ) x i x j
iI

jJ

iI

jJ

( i I , x i ) ( j J , x j )
(i , j ) I J , ( x i x j )
(i, j ) I J , x i j

( i j )

( i , j )I J

5, 6, 7, 8 .

1. i = ( i )
iI

iI

2. i = ( i )
iI

iI

1. x i x ( x i )
iI

iI

x ( i I , x i )
x (i I x i )
[i I ( x x i )
x ( i )
iI

2. x i x x i
iI

iI

x (i I x i )
x (i I , x i )
i I , x x i
i I , x i
x ( i )
iI

1. ( i ) ( j ) =
iI

jJ

2. ( i ) ( j ) =
iI

jJ

( i j )

( i j )

( i , j )I J

( i , j )I J

24
1. ( x, y ) ( i ) ( j )
iI

jJ

x i y j
iI

jJ

(i I x i ) ( j J y j )
(i, j ) I J ( x, y ) i j

( x, y )

( i j )

( i , j )I J

2. ( x, y ) ( i ) ( j )
iI

jJ

x i y j
iI

jJ

i I , x i j J , y j
(i , j ) I J , ( x , y ) i j

( x, y )

( i j )

( i , j )I J

7 ( De Morgan) i , i I
c

U , i = ic
iI iI
c

c
i = i
iI iI
.

A A ,

AC

AC

C .
:
21 A ,

25

A = { x / A C , x A} A = { x / A C x A}

AC

AC

,
= , = {( , ) / }

22 C ( ) ,
1. 1 C , 2 C 1 2 , 1 2 =
2.

B=

BC

,
[ / ]

8 f
1 , 2 , f ( 1 2 ) = f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) i , i I ,
f ( i ) = f ( i ) .
iI

iI

y f ( i ) x i , f ( x) = y
iI

iI

i I , x i f ( x) = y
i I , y f ( i ) y f ( i )
iI

A = .
A ; x x A . x
; C ( X ) , A = X .
9

C = ,

AC

AC

AC

AC

19 20, I = . .

26
y f ( i ) i I , y f ( i )
iI

i I x i , f ( x ) = y
x i f ( x ) = y
iI

y f ( i )
iI

9 1 , 2 ,
f ( 1 2 ) f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) i , i I
, f ( i ) f ( i ) .
iI

iI

y f ( i ) f ( x) = y x i
iI

iI

(i I x i f ( x) = y )
f ( x) = y ( i I f ( x) f ( i ))
y f ( i )
iI

= . f : [0, + )
f ( x) = x 2 , 1 = ( ,0) 2 = (0, +) , 1 2 = ,

f ( 1 2 ) = , f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) = (0, +)

f 1
f . .

10 f 1-1,
f ( 1 2 ) = f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) :

f ( ) = f ( ) .
i

iI

iI

27
6,
y f ( i ) y f ( i ) .
iI

iI

y f ( i ) ( i I xi i y = f ( xi )) .
iI

f ( xi ) , , f 1-1,
xi . x i y = f ( x) ,
iI

f ( x) = y x i y f ( i ) .
iI

iI

11 1 , 2 ,
f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) f ( 1 2 )
f 1-1,
f ( 1 2 ) = f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) .
y f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) , x A1 f ( x) = y .
x A2 , y = f ( x) f ( A2 ) , y f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) , . x A1 A2 y f ( 1 A2 ) , .
f 1-1,
y f ( 1 2 ) y f ( 1 ) f ( 2 )
y f ( 1 2 ) x 1 2 , f ( x) = y
x 1 , f ( x) = y
x 2 , f ( x) = y , f ( x) = f ( x) x = x x 1 2 ,
. x 1 , f ( x) = y y f ( A2 ) ,
y f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) .
f 1-1 =.
f : [0, + ) f ( x) = x 2 , 1 = (,0] 2 = [0, +) ,

f ( 1 2 ) = [0, +) , f ( 1 ) f ( 2 ) =

28

12 f : i , i I ,
1. f 1 ( i ) = f 1 ( i )
iI

iI

2. f ( i ) = f 1 ( i )
1

iI

iI

1.

y f 1 i x i , f ( x) = y
iI
iI
i I , x i , f ( x ) = y

i I , y f 1 ( i )
y f 1 ( i )
iI

2.

y f 1 i x i , f ( x) = y
iI
iI
(i I x i ), f ( x) = y
x,(i I x Ai ), y = f ( x)
y f 1 ( i )
iI

13 f : ,
, f 1 ( ) = f 1 () f 1 ()

y f 1 ( ) x , f ( x) = y
x x , f ( x ) = y
y f 1 ( ) y f 1 ( )
y f 1 ( ) f 1 ( )

29
23 f : g :
f ( ) , g f : 1
( g f )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) x 1 ,

1 = { x / x f ( x) } .
g f f g

14 f : , i f = f f i = f
15 f : , g : h : ,
h ( g f ) = (h g ) f

16 f : ,
f 1 f = i f f 1 = i
17 f : g :
: g f :
( g f )1 = f 1 g 1
x1 , x2 ,
( g f )( x1 ) = ( g f )( x2 ) g ( f ( x1 )) = g ( f ( x2 ))

f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) x1 = x2
g f 1-1. .
( g f ) 1 ( x) = y1 x = ( g f )( y1 )
( f 1 g 1 )( x) = y2 g 1 ( x) = f ( y2 ) x = ( g f )( y1 )
( g f )( y1 ) = ( g f )( y2 ) y1 = y2
: ( g f ) 1 = f 1 g 1
: f g = g f
f : [1, +) f ( x) = x 2 + 1

30
g :[0, + ) [0, + ) g ( x ) = x ,
g f:

[1, + ) ( g f )( x) = x 2 + 1

f g :[0, + ) [1, + ) ( f g )( x ) = x + 1 . f g g f
f g = g f .
f:

[0, + ) f ( x ) =| x | g :

[0, +) g ( x) = x 2 ,

f g:

[0, +) ( f g ) ( x) =| x 2 |= x 2

g f:

[0, +) ( g f ) ( x) =| x |2 = x 2

, ,

.

, .
, ,
.
i , i I
, ( Axiom of
choice, axiome du choix)
i i I 10 .

18 ( )
:
. 11
r : ( ) {} r ( )

10
11

.
r .

31
.
( ) {}
F ( ) = {( , ) / } .

, ( ) {} , F ( ) F () = .
G = { F ( ) / ( ) }
J , J F ( )
( ) .

r : ( ) , J F ( ) = {( , )} , r ( ) = , ( )
i , i I

, i ( i ) {} .
iI

r : ( i ) {} i r () , ( i ) {} .
iI

iI

= {r ( i ), i I } .

iI

( ) :
: i , i I , f : i , f ( i ) i , i I .
iI

f
= ( i ) {} ,
iI

.

24 i , i I
, I

iI

i I i :

32

= a / a : I i a(i ) i
iI
iI

A ,
AS

S, ,
f : S A f ( A) A .
AS

= =

I = ,

iI

19 ( )
i i , i I I
iI

i I , i = .
i I i = ,

a : I i a(i ) i ,
iI

iI

i I i , ( ) r : ( i ) {} i ,
iI

r ( ) ( ) {} .

iI

: I ( ) {} (i ) = i .
r i ,
iI

iI

20
.

33
1.9
1 n , n

1. lim sup n 12
n , n n , n .
2. lim inf n k n n k .
= = n , n
= lim n

1 n , n

1. = liminf n = n
k =1 n = k

2. = limsup n = n
k =1 k = n

1. x , k

x n , n k ,

x n , x n
n=k

k =1 n = k

x n , k
k =1 n = k

x n , n=k

x n , n k , x

2. x , nk
x nk , k

. nk k x n ,
n=k

k , x n .
k =1 k = n

12

34

x n , k
k =1 k = n

x n ,
n=k

nk k , x nk , x .

2 n , n

liminf n limsup n

3 n , n
X
c
1. ( limsup n ) = liminf cn

2. ( liminf n ) = lim sup cn

c

1.( limsup n )
2.( liminf n )

= n = n = cn = liminf cn
k =1 k =n k =1 n=k k =1 n=k

= n = n = cn = limsup cn
k =1 n=k k =1 n=k k =1 k =n

4 n , n
n , n ,

=
n

n =1

n =1

Gn , n

G1 = 1 , G2 = 1 2 ,..., Gn = k ,... .
k =1

n , n

n = Gn Gn1 , n

35

1. 1 2 , lim n = n
n =1

2. 1 2 , lim n = n
n =1

3. n , n
lim n =

1
1
1
1 2
2
4. 1 = [0, ] , 2 = [ ,1] , 3 = [0, ] , 4 = [ , ] , 5 = [ ,1] ,,
2
2
3
3 3
3

= [0,1] =

36

1.
1.
2.
3.
4. = =
5. = =
6. i i i I , i i
iI

iI

2. , , ,
1. ( ) =
2. ( ) = ( )
3. ( ) = ( )
4. ( ) = ( ) ( )
5. ( ) = ( ) ( )
3. A, B ( A B ) ( B A) = C C ,
A= B=C
4. A, B ( A B ) ( B A) = (C D ) ( D C ) ,
A = C B = D A = D B = C
5.
1. ( ) = ( )
2. ( ) = ( ) ( )
3. = =
4.
=
5. ( ) =
6. = =
7. = ( )

37
6. i , i I I ,

1. i = ( i )
iI
iI

2. i = ( i )
iI
iI
7. ,
1.
2.
8. ( ) . :
1 , x
: {0,1} ( x) =
0 , x
:
. ( x) = 0 x
. ( x) = 1 x
. ( x) = ( x) ( x) x
. ( x) = ( x) ( x) x
9. :
( ) ( ) = ( ) ( )
10. i , i I I , :

( ) = ( )
. ( ) ( )
.

iI

iI

iI

iI

11. , = = .

38
12. f : .
f 2 = f f f +1 = f f .
f = i , f .
13. f : , g : g f = i
f 1-1 g .
f g = i , f , g f 1 = g .
14. n = n , n

= ( liminf n ) ( limsup n ) = ( limsup n ) ( liminf n )

15. :
R f
dom( R ) = dom( f )
16. 1 2 n
i
17. 1 , 2 ,..., n ,
n 1

k =1

k =1

( k k +1 ) ( n 1 ) k
18. X n , n Yn , n .

1. limsup ( X n Yn ) = limsup X n limsup Yn

2. liminf ( X n Yn ) = liminf X n liminf Yn
3. liminf ( X n Yn ) liminf X n liminf Yn
4. limsup ( X n Yn ) limsup X n limsup Yn
5. limsup ( X n Yn ) = limsup X n limsup Yn
6. liminf ( X n Yn ) liminf X n liminf Yn

39
19. f n , f ,

1
{ x / x f ( x) > a} = x / f n ( x) a +
m
m =1 r =1 n = r

40
2.1 .
{1, 2,3} .

. , .

.
,
, n
{1,2,3,..., n} ,
;
,

, .
,
;


; ,
,
. ,

. , , .
1 , f
. , ,
,
{1, 2,3,..., } 0.

41
, . / .

= .1

1 1.
2.
3. ,
1. i : .
2. f : ,
f 1 : ,

3. f : .
g : .
g f : , .

1 Bolzano, Cantor
(1878).
Cantor ( Cantor [1895], .118-119 )
: ,
, ,
m
.
,
, (

, ,
,
.

42
2 ,
.
R.
Dedekind 2 (. , .63)

2 ,
.
, ,
, . f : . = ( ) ,
.
f ( x), x
g : g ( x) =
x
x,
, , .

3 ( , ) ( , )
.
2 Richard Dedekind, 1831.
, Stern, Gauss
Weber. 1852 Gauss ,
Euler. 1854 ,
, , Galois.
R.Dedekind
. .
R.Dedekind
Dedekind. B. Russell
, ,
,
Weirstrass, Dedekind Cantor .
. Weirstrass, Dedekind Cantor. (. Bell
. 441)
R. Dedekind 1916 85 ,
.

43
f : ( , ) ( , )


f ( x) =
x
+ , .

4 (

( , ) .
2 2

f : ( , )
2 2
.

f ( x ) = tan x , -

5 (0,1) ( , )
.
:

( ][ )
.

(c)
()

. 2

44
, C
()
. 2
][ () :
1 ][ 1
. 1 () 1 .

1 1 .

6 .
, 3 :

1,
.

1
.1

45

7 [0,1] (0,1) .
f :[0,1] (0,1)
1
x=0
2 ,

1 , x = 1 ,n
f ( x) =
,
n
n + 2

x,
x

1 1
= (0,1) , ,... .
2 3
x1 , x2 [0,1] x1 x2 .
1
1
1. x1 = 0 x2 = , n , n 1 , n + 2 1 ,
1 ,
n
n+2
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
1
2. x1 = 0 x2 , f ( x2 ) = x2 = f ( x1 )
2
1
1 1
3. x1 = , n x2 , f ( x2 ) = x2 , ,... , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
n
3 4
f 1-1. f . [0,1] (0,1)

8 [0,1] (0,1] .
f :[0,1] (0,1]
1
1
n + 1, x = n , n

f ( x) =

1
x,
x ,n
n

, , -

46

9 [0, a ) (0, a ] .
f :[0, a ) (0, a ] f ( x ) = a x .

10 (0, a ) (0, +)
f : (0, a ) (0, + ) f ( x) =
.

1
1
ax a

11 [0, a ) [0, + )
12 (a, 0) , (,0) (a,0] , (,0]
, a < 0 .

13

1 .

,
( a, b ) a 0 y = ax + b
( 0,b ) b < 0 y = ln( b)
( 0,0 ) x = 0
( 0,b ) 0 < b < 1 x = ln b

47
( 0,b ) 1 b x = b
.
2 Y X Y Y Z , X X Z

f : Y Z Y 1-1 .

X Z = ( X (Y Z ) ) (Y Z ) g : X Z X g ( x ) = x ,
x X (Y Z ) g ( x) = f ( x) x Y Z 1-1 , .
3.

A = ( A B ) ( A B ) B = ( B A) ( A B ) .

f : A B B A 1-1 . g : A B g ( x ) = x ,
x A B g ( x) = f ( x) , x A B 1-1 , .

A = B , .
4. A B M N

A M B N

A = (0,1) , M = (1, 2) B = N =
A M = B N = .

, A B , M N

2.2 .
1 n , , , (n) = {1,2,..., n}


1 n > 1 k ( n) ,

48

= (n) {k} (n 1) .

k = n ,
f : (n 1) f ( x ) = x .
k < n ,

x, x n
( f : (n 1) f ( x) =
k , x = n
).

2 n , (n) ,
(n) .
. n = 1 , . m = n m = n + 1 .
( n + 1) ( n + 1) . f : ( n + 1) .

1 : n + 1 , = {n + 1}

(n) f 1 : ( n + 1) { f 1 (n + 1)} .

(n + 1) f 1 (n + 1) ( n) ,

( n) , .
2 : n + 1 , ((n + 1) {n + 1}) ( { f (n + 1)}) ,

(n) ( { f ( n + 1)}) . ( n + 1) n + 1 ,
( n) , ( n) ( { f ( n + 1)}) , .
3 (n) , n > 1 , m m < n , , ( m) .
n = 2 .
k = n > 2 k = n + 1 .
( n + 1) .
1 : n + 1 , ( n)
( n) , .
= ( n) , ( n) n < n + 1 , .

49
2 : n + 1 , ( n + 1) l
l < n + 1 , l .

x, x n + 1
,
l , x = n + 1
1-1 f ( ) ( n + 1) n + 1 f ( ) , f ( ) ( n ) .
f ( ) ( n ) , m , m < n
f ( ) ( m) , ( m) , f ( ) .
f ( ) = ( n) , f ( ) , ( n) n < n + 1 ,
f :

f ( x) =

4 (n) , n > 1 , m
m n , , ( m) .
( n) , , m m < n , , ( m) . = ( n ) , m = n .

5 m, n

, ( n) ( m) n = m .

( ) m n .
m < n , ( m) ( n) , 2.
( ) .

6 m, n

, ( n) , , (m) , n m

f : ( m) 1-1 . = f 1 ( ) (n) ,
4 k k m , , ( k ) .
, n = k , n m .

2 , ,
n , ( n) .

1 .
4.

50
3 ,
0, = ( n) ,
.
, n , = {1 , 2 ,..., n }

2 ,
, .
.
= n ,
f : ( n) . , f () f ( ) = ( n)
f () , ( n) (n) ,
f () ( n) . (n) ,
, .

3 ,
.
, , f : .
g : ( ) ,
f ( x), x
g ( x) =
x
x,
g ( ) , .

4 = n > 1 , .
= n > 1 , f : ( n) . f () f ( ) = ( n) , ( 3) m m < n f () ( m) . f ()
( ) , .

51

5 n
n , n (n)

( ) m = 1 . 1 , (1) {1} .
m = n ( n) . = , ( n) ,
( 2) .
, .
{ } (n + 1) , .

( ) 1 , 2 , , n , ,
n (n) n . 1 , 2 ,..., n ,... , n (n)
n n +1 n

. 2 = 2 = {1 , 2 } 1 = {1} . -

2 = 2 . m
m n
n +1 . n+1 n ( 4),

n +1 n +1 n +1 n . n +1 = n { n +1}

( n + 1) n n +1 . n , n

n +1 n = { n +1} . = { 2 , 3 ,..., n ,...}

, ,
= { 4 , 6 , 8 ,..., 2 n ,...} ( f :
f (n ) = 2n , n

1-1 ), .

6 , n
( n )

k ,
( ) {} / ( k ) . ,
, . , 1 ,

52

{1} ( ) {} , {1} (1) , m > 1 , m 1

m 1 .
( ) {} (m 1) . ,
, { } ( ) { } (m) ,
, = , = , ( m 1) ,
n ( n = m 1 ).

7 () ()
() .
() .
6

1.
. f : ( n) ( n ) 1-1,
. f : ( n) ( n ) , 1-1

. f , f ( (n) ) (n) , f ( (n) )

, ( n) ( n) , .
. f 1-1, , 1
f

({k}) , k (n) , (n) (n) , .

2. 1 , 2 ,..., n

{1 , 2 ,..., n }

.
, ,
m 1 = {1 , 2 ,..., m } ,

= {1 , 2 ,..., n , 1 , 2 ,..., m } , ( m + n) , .

53
3. 1 , 2 ,..., n

{1, 2 ,..., n } = ,

{1 , 2 ,..., n } .

54
2.3 .
1 ,
.
, f : .
f , = {1 , 2 , 3 ,..., ,...} .

, .

1 .
,
= {1 , 2 ,..., ,...} .
= { 2 , 4 ,..., 2 ,...}
f : f ( ) = 2 . f , , .

2
5 2.2

3
2 +1 ,
0 1 2 ,
, .

4
, . ,
. G. Cantor.

55
, ,
.

1

...

1
2

2
2

3
2

4
2

...

1
3

2
3

3
3

4
3

...

1,
2 ..
,
, , :
1 1
1, 2, , , 3, .
2 3
.
1 , 2 , 3 , , 0, 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , .

5 .

2.4 ;

1 ( Cantor)
(0,1)

56
1 (0,1) 1 1
, , ,... .
2 3
,
1 , 2 , 3 ,
(
1
0,5 0,4999)
2
:
1 = 0, 1112 13 ,
2 = 0, 2122 33 ,
3 = 0, 3132 33 ,
.
, ,
(0,1) . ,
0, 123 , = 7 , = 3 = 3 ,
3 ,
1 , 2
... (0,1)
, , Cantor
, , . ( ) ( . )
-
1
2 (0,1) , 1 , 2 , 3 ,... , (0,1)

, supremum. , , infimum.

57
. (0,1)

1
2
3
3

1
1 2
2
( 0 , ) , ( , ) , ( ,1 ). ,
3
3 3
3
( 0 , 0 ) , 1 .
1
.
3
1
( 1 , 1 ) , 2
3
2 ..
1
( 1 , 1 ) ,
3
. .

( 0 , 0 ) ( 1 , 1 ) ( 1 , 1 )

1
1 1 = ( 1 , 1 ) , .
3
(1) lim( ) = 0 . ,

= sup{ , } = lim . ,

= inf{ , } = lim
(1) = lim( ) = 0 , =

, ( , ) ,

. ( , ) .

,
(0,1) , , (0,1) .
, (0,1)
.

58
0 , 2
c ( continuum).
.
. .

1. = [0,1]

1
.
3

1
32

. Cantor, C .

1 2
1 2
7 8
C = [0,1] [( , ) ( , ) ( , )
3 3
9 9
9 9

] , C = c

Cantor
, 0 2. [0,1] 0 2,
C . [0,1] , f : C [0,1]
f
x = 0, x1 x2 ...xn ...
0,

x1 x2
2 2

xn
2

1-1 , -

.
2. r1 , r2 ,..., rn ,... (0,1)
0, a j1a j 2 ...a jn ... rj ,
a = a11a22 ...ann ... .

2 ( )

59

Cantor
a , a = c1c2 ...ck b1b2 ...bm

r = d1d 2 ...d k e1e2 ...em di = 1 ci 1 di = 2 ci = 1 1 i k

ei = 3 bi 3 ei = 4 bi = 3 . r = rn

1. 1 n k
2. k > n
, n ann ann = cn = d n , .
, n
ann ann = bl = el , l n k m ,
0 < l < k 1 l = m m | n k , .
3. , ,

.
. ,
, .

M =

{( ,

} ,

, 3 ) ,

) (

. M , 1 , 12 , 13 , 2 , 22 , 23

( ,
3

2
3

, 33 ) , , 4 {1 , 2 , 3}

) (

) (

1 , 12 , 13 , 2 , 22 , 23 , 3 , 32 , 33 4 , 42 , 43
. Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .

1
2
3
4

12
22
32
42

13
23
33
43

1
1
= ( 4 3 )( 4 2 )( 4 1 )(3 2 )(3 1 )( 2 1 ) 0
1
1

60

A = B = C = D = 0 , . M ,
.
KL, PR M , ,
K , L, P, R , , .
4.
n
, n, m

61
2.5 - Cantor-Bernstein 1

, < .

. ,
1
( < ),
.
1.

2. : 1-1
f :.

1 ( Cantor-Bernstein) 2

,

2 , 2 2 1 ,
1 Felix Bernstein (1878-1956) ,
Cantor Hilbert Klein . 1934
1948.
Cantor-Bernstein, , .
2 Cantor . 1898 F. Bernstein , (. )
Banach, .

62
1
2

f : 2 . = 0
f ( 0 ) = 2 , f ( 1 ) = 3 , f ( 2 ) = 4 , f ( 3 ) = 5 , ...
1 0 f ( 1 ) = 3 f ( 0 ) = 2 3 2
f ( 3 ) = 5 f ( 2 ) = 4 , ...
:
0 1 2 3 4 .
: =

i =1

= ( 0 1 ) ( 1 2 ) ( 2 3 ) ...
1 = ( 1 2 ) ( 2 3 ) ( 3 4 ) ( 4 5 ) ...
,
, :
+1 , +1

+1 +1 , + 1 ,
+1 .
1 , , g 1 :
1) .
2) 2 1 2
3) 2 2 +1

f ( ) 3 , f ( 2 2 +1 ) = f ( 2 ) f ( 2 +1 )

= 2 + 2 2 + 3
1-1 1 ,

63

0 1

1 2

1 2

2 3

2 3

.1
( ) .
1 1 1 1 . 1
f : 1 . f (1 ) = 2 1
2 1 1 , 2 2 1 (
), 1 . 1 , .
S. Banach 4 Cantor
1 E , M = ( E ) f : M M A, B M
A B f ( A) f ( B) ( ), C M ,
f (C ) = C .

4 Stefan Banach, , 30 1892 . ,

,
Hugo Steinhaus. Hugo Steinhaus ,
,
, . ,
, ,
Lwow. .
Theory des oprations linaires . : Banach, Banach, Banach, Hahn-Banach, Banach-Steinhaus, Banach, Banach-Alaoglou, Banach-Mazur.
31 1945 Lwow, 53 .

64
S = { A \ A M , f ( A) A} . S
, E S . Q =

A .
AS

f ( Q ) = f A f ( A) A = Q , Q S . T = f ( Q )
AS
AS AS
f (T ) f ( f ( Q ) ) f ( Q ) = T (1), T S , Q T ,
T = f ( Q ) f (T ) (2). (1) (2) f (T ) = T .

2 A B M 1 , M 2 , g : M 1 M 1 h : M 2 M 2
, g ( A) B h( B ) A ,
A B ( A = A1 A2 B = B1 B2 ),
g ( A1 ) = B1 h( B2 ) = A2 .

f : M 1 M 1 f ( E ) = A h B g ( E ) ,

.
A1 M 1 f ( A1 ) = A1 . A2 = A A1 = h B g ( A1 ) ,

B1 = g ( A1 ) B2 = B B1 , .

1-1 g : ,
g ( ) 1-1 h : , , 2,
1 , 2 1 , 2 , g ( 1 ) = 1
h ( 2 ) = 2 . f : f ( x) = g ( x), x 1

f ( x) = h 1 ( x), x 2 1-1 , .
Cantor-Bernstein
a b b a a b , a = b

2 = {0,1} ,
( )

65
f :

1, x
f ( x) =
,
0 , x
( ).
g : ( ) g ( ) = f , 1-1
1 , 2 ( ) 1 2 , f 1 f 2 .
1 2 x 1 x 2 , x 1
x 2 , f 1 ( x) = 1 f 2 ( x) = 0 , f 1 f 2 , g (1 ) g ( 2 )

g
u u ( x) = 1 x ,
w
w( x) = 0 x .
f
1 , x
, , .
f ( x) =
0 , x
( ) .

; ;
Cantor , .

3 ( Cantor)
( )
1 5 ( ) , f : ( ) ,
f ( a ) , a = { x : x f ( x )} .
( ) , a , = f ( ) ,
5

66

f ( ) ,
f ( ) , ,
( ) .

2 ( ) {0,1} {0,1}
0

1. ( ) , {0,1}

{0,1} .

( ) = f g : {0,1} g ( x) = 1 f x ( x) .
g {0,1} , g = ( ) = f ,

g ( x) = f ( x) x , 1 f x ( x) = f ( x) x .
x = 1 f ( ) = f ( ) , f ( ) =

1
, 2

4 < ( ) .
( )
( ) ,
, < ( ) .
1.

< ( ) < (( )) <

, ( 0 c ),
,
6 .
6 .

67

5 a, b, c a < b b < c
a < c .
a = A , b = B , c = C . a < b

B1 B A B1 . f : A B1 .
b < c C1 C B C1 .
g : B C1 .
g ( B1 ) C1 C . g f : A C1 , 1-1.
( g f )( A) = C2 C1 , g f : A C2 1-1 , A C2 ,
a c . C A , C C2
C2 C1 C , C1 C . C1 B B C
C A , a < c .

6 A B C A = C , A = B = C

Cantor-Bernstein

.

.

*+ = / , ( , ) = 1 .

f : *+ f = 2 3 , 1-1

A = {2 3/ } . f ( *+ ) ,
A =

f (

*
+

)=

*
+

7 f : A B , f ( A) A
Qx , x f ( A) Qx = {a A, f (a ) = x}

68
Qx x f ( A) Qx Qy = x y
B , g : f ( A) A g ( x) = Qx B . g , f ( A) A .

1. Ai , i I
. I = c
. Ai = 0 , i I
.

= 0

i I

. Ai Aj < 0 , i, j I i j
2. . ,
.
3.
4. Ai , i I
5.

, I 0

> 0 -

( , + ) ( , ) , .
6. f :
, .
7. A ( A) .

69
2.6
, ,
.

1 = = ,
.

f : .
g : . h :
f ( x ) , x
h( x ) =
g( x ) , x

x1 , x2 x1 x2
) x1 , x2 , h( x1 ) = f ( x1 ) h( x2 ) = f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) h( x1 ) h( x2 )
) x1 , x2 , h( x1 ) = g ( x1 ) h( x2 ) = g ( x2 )

g ( x1 ) g ( x2 ) h( x1 ) h( x2 )
) x1 x2 , h( x1 ) = f ( x1 ) h( x2 ) = g ( x2 ) = h( x1 ) h( x2 ) , h 1-1.
, . x ,
f ( x ) = g ( x ) = , x , h( x) = , h
.

,
.

70
1 + = ( {1}) ( {2})

2 1 , 2 ,...,
1 , 2 ,..., ,
{1, 2,..., } , 1 2 ... 1 2 ...

f :
, {1, 2,..., } .
f : 1 2 ... 1 2 ...

f1 ( x) , x 1
f ( x) , x

2
f ( x) = 2
(

f ( x) , x
1), 1 2 ... 1 2 ...
1

=1

( { })

=1

3 i , i I ( I )
i , i I

1 ( {1}) ( {2}) , : ,

+ = .
2 , {1, 2,..., } ,

=1

=1

71

i i , i I ,
i i
i I

i I

Fi
i i . Fi ( i i )

( i i ) {} , i I ,
Fi , i I . Fi , i I
S . Fi S = { fi } , i I .

f : i i f ( x) = f i ( x) , x i .
i I

i I

x1 , x2 i x1 x2 , i1 , i2 I x1 i1
i I

x2 i2 . f ( x1 ) i1 f ( x2 ) i2
i1 i2 , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) , i1 i2 =
i1 = i2 = i , fi ( x1 ) = f ( x1 ) fi ( x2 ) = f ( x2 )

f i ( x1 ) f i ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) , f 1-1
y i , i I y i . x i
i I

y = f i ( x) , x i y = f ( x) , f
i I

i I

i I

i I

( {i})

i I

3 i , i I ,

i I

i I

72

1.

= {1} {2,3} {4,5, 6} ...

1+ 2 + 3 +

2.

= 0

= {1, 2} {3, 4} {5, 6} ,

2 + 2 + 2 + = 0

+ + + = 0
3.

= {1} {2,3} {4,5, 6, 7,8,9} ,

1!+ 2!+ 3!+

= 0

4 , , , ,
.

f : .
g : . h : h(( x1 , x2 )) = ( f ( x1 ), g ( x2 ))
( x1 , x2 ) ( x3 , x4 ) h(( x1 , x2 )) = h(( x3 , x4 )) ,
( f ( x1 ), g ( x2 )) = ( f ( x3 ), g ( x4 )) , f ( x1 ) = f ( x3 ) g ( x2 ) = g ( x4 )
x1 = x3 x2 = x4 ( x1 , x2 ) = ( x3 , x4 ) .
( , ) , , f ( ) =
, g ( ) = ( , ) h(( , )) = ( , ) ,
h . .
,
.
4 =

5 1 , 2 ,..., 1 , 2 ,..., ,
{1, 2,..., } , 1 2

1 2

73
f :

, {1, 2,..., } . f : 1 2 1 2
f ((1 , 2 ,..., )) = ( f1 (1 ), f 2 ( 2 ),..., f ( )) ( ),
1 2 1 2

5 1 , 2 ,..., ,

1 2

= 1 2

6 i , i I I
i , i I , i i , i I , i i
iI

iI

: i i (
iI

i I

3)
g i h i . f : i i
i I

i I

i I

i I

f ( g ) = h ( g (i )) = h(i ) , i I .
f ( g1 ) = f ( g 2 ) , h1 = h2 , h1 (i ) = h2 (i ) i I ,
( g1 (i )) = ( g 2 (i )) i I , g1 (i ) = g 2 (i ) i I ,
g1 = g 2 , f 1-1.

g i , 1 g i ( ( 1 g )(i ) ) = g (i ) i I ,
i I
1

f (

iI

g ) = g , f

74
I

1 r

.
iI

iI

6 i 0 i I ( I )

iI

( {i})
iI

7 , , ,
.

f : .

g : . r : r( h ) = g h

h


1
f
g
r (h)

(. 1)

4 i , i I ,

iI

iI

f 1 ( 1)

75

h


f
g 1

(. 2)

h1 , h2 r (h1 ) = r (h2 ) , g h1 f 1 = g h2 f 1 ,

g ( h1 ( f 1 ( x)) = g ( h2 ( f 1 ( x )) x X , h1 ( f 1 ( x ) ) = h2 ( f 1 ( x ) )

x X . , f 1
= f 1 ( x) . h1 ( ) = h2 ( ) , h1 = h2 , r
1-1.
. g 1 f = h ( 2 )
r ( h) = g g 1 f f 1 = , r , .
,

0 0 -

, , .

7 0 0

= .

i , i I

i = = ,

= I ,

iI

i I

( {i}) = I
i

= I

i I

8 a, b a + b = b + a ( )

76

9 a, b, c
a + (b + c ) = ( a + b) + c ( )

10 a, b ab = ba ( )
= a , = b
f : f ( x, y ) = ( y, x) , x y ,
. , ab = ba .

11 a, b, c ( ab)c = a (bc )
= a , = b , = c
f : ( ) ( ) f (( x, ( y , z )) = (( x, y ), z ) , x , y
z .
( ) ( ) , ( ab)c = a (bc ) .

12 a, b, c
a (b + c ) = ab + ac
(b + c )a = ba + ca

= , = , = ,
. ( ) = ( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) ( ) , ,
a (b + c ) = ab + ac .
(b + c )a = ba + ca
:

13 bi , i I I

i I

1. a bi = abi
i I

77

2. bi a = bi a

i I
i I
, i , i I , i = bi , i I .

, i = ( i )
i I

i I

= ( ) ( 6.2 i

i I

i I

1.7 )

14 a, b, c
1. (b a )c = bac
2. a b a c = a b + c
3. (ab)c = a cbc
1. = a , = b , = c .
( ) , , : ( ) ,
.
f
f
f ( ) ,

: ( f ) = r r ( , ) = f ( ) , ( , )
( f (1) ) = ( f (2) ) , r1 = r2 , r1 ( , ) = r2 ( , ) ( , ) ,
f(1) ( ) = f(2) ( ) , f(1) = f(2)
, f (1) = f (2) , 1-1.
r r (( , )) = . f ,
f ( ) = f ( ) f ( ) = f , ( f ) = r , , .
2.
= = .

78
,
: .
f g ,
f ( x), x
( f , g ) = ( x) =
g ( x), x
H ( f1 , g1 ) = H ( f 2 , g 2 ) , 1 = 2 , 1 ( x) = 2 ( x) x ,
f1 ( x) = f 2 ( x) x 1 g1 ( x) = g 2 ( x) x ,
f1 = f 2 g1 = g 2 , ( f1 , g1 ) = ( f 2 , g 2 ) , 1-1.
: , f : , g :
f ( x ) = ( x ) x g ( x ) = ( x ) x .
( f , g ) = , . .
3. : ( x) = ( , ) , x
: ( ) ( ) = ( f , g ) ,
( ) , ( x) = ( , ) , x , ,
f f ( x ) = g g ( x) =
(1 ) = (2 ) , 1 ( x) = 2 ( x) x ,
(1 , 1 ) = ( 2 , 2 ) , 1 = 2 1 = 2 , f1 ( x) = f 2 ( x)
g1 ( x) = g 2 ( x) x ,
( f1 , g1 ) = ( f 2 , g 2 ) , 1-1.
( f , g ) f ( x ) = k g ( x ) = l .
h : h( x) = ( k , l ) = ( f ( x ), g ( x )) . ( h) = ( f , g ) ,
. ( ) , .

15 ( ) ai , i I : I I 5 ,

a = a
i I

i I

(i )

79

i , i I : I I
,

iI

iI

(i )

.
i

iI

: i ( i ) ( f ) = f . iI

iI

.
1-1 f1 , f 2

iI

f1 f 2 , i I

f1 (i ) f 2 (i ) . j I , i = ( j ) ,
f1 ( ( j )) f 2 ( ( j )) , ( f1 ) ( f 2 )
g

iI

(i )

, f = g 1 .

( f ) = ( f ) = g , , .
1

16 a bi , i I ( I ) ,

bi
bi
iI
( 14.2)
a
=
a

i I

i , i I i = bi , i I

i
f : i iI f ( r ) = h h(k ) = ri (k ) k i ri = r (i)
i I

f ( r (1) ) = f (r (2) ) , h (1) = h (2) , h(1) (k ) = h(2) (k ) i I

k i , ri (1) = ri (2) , f 1-1.

80
i
h iI , hi i

hi (k ) = h(k ) k i . r i r (i ) = ri = hi i I ,
iI

f ( r ) = h , f .

i
i
iI

iI

17 a bi , i I ( I ) a

, bi = bi ( 14.3)
i I
i I

i , i I i = bi

i I = a . f i ,
i I
gk
f
k A
g k i i I g k (i ) i h i ,
iI

i I

hi (k ) .
i I
hi k

hi

: i i ( f ) = h hi (k ) = g k (i ) i I
i I
i I
k
( f (1) ) = ( f (2) ) , h (1) = h (2) , h(1) (i ) = h(2) (i ) i I ,
hi(1) (k ) = hi(2) ( k ) i I k , g k(1) (i ) = g k(2) (i )

i I k , f (1) (k ) = f (2) (k ) k ,
f (1) = f (2) , 1-1

h , f i hi (k ) = f k (i )
iI
i I
i I k . ( f ) = h , .

i i , .
i I
i I

18 ( )

 ai , i I K j , j J

81

a = a

I ( I ),

i I

jI

i K j

i , i I ( I ) K j , j J -

( )

I ,

iI

iK j

K j

jJ iK j

= B j . B j g

g (i ) i .

iK j

B
jJ

B
jJ

( j ) B j . ( j ) j .

i I , j J i K j .

f : I i f (i ) = j (i )
iI

: ( i ) i ( j ) = f . .
jJ iK j

iI

(2)
1-1 , j
(1)
j

(1)

= f

(2)

, f

(1)

( ) (
jJ iK j

(1)
j

) = ( j(2) ) ,

(2)
(i ) = f (2) (i ) i I , (1)
j = J ,

1-1, .

19 ( ) = 2

4 .

20
, : 2

= c

82
2 = 20 .
1,2,3,...
{0,1}{ } , 0 1.
, 1-1 (0,1),
,

{0,1}{

1,2,3,...}

= (0,1) ,

20 = C

21 a, b, c
. a < b a + c < b + c
. a < b c < d a + c b + d
= a, = b, = c, = d
.
. a < b 1-1 f : .
g : g ( x) = f ( x) x g ( x ) = x x
1-1, , a + c b + d .
. ,
. a < b , 1-1 f :
c < d , 1-1 g :
f ( x) , x
h : h( x) =
1-1,
g ( x) , x

, a + c b + d .

22 ai bi i I ( I ) ai < bi , i I ,

a b
i I

i I

i , i I

83

i = ai i I i , i I ,
i = bi i I . ai < bi 1-1

fi : i i , i I . fi Fi .

Fi ( i i ) {} . ( i i ) {}

( j j ) {} i, j I i j , Fi
F j , Fi , i I ,

S , S Fi = { fi } , i I .

f : i i f ( x) = f i ( x) x i iI

1-1,

iI

iI

a b .
i I

iI

i I

23 a, b, c, d
. a < b ac bc
. a < b c < d ac bd
= a, = b, = c, = d
. a < b , 1-1 f : .
f1 : f1 (( x, y )) = ( f ( x), y ) 1-1,

, ac bd
. a < b ac bd c < d bc bd , ac bd .

24 ai bi i I ai < bi ,
i I , ai bi
i I

i I

20
f ,
.

84

g : i i g ( r ) = f r ,
iI

iI

1-1.

25 a, b, c
. a < b a c b c
. a < b c a c b
, = a, = b a < b , 1-1
f : .
. f ( ) , f ( ) , f ( ) , a c b c .
. g : f ( ) .
h :
g ( x ) , x f ( )
, , h g
h( x ) =
, x f ( )
. , , g : f ( ) .

f ( ) , f ( ) , .

26 ( Kning 6 )
ai , i I bi , i I
ai < bi i I ,

a < b
i I

i I

i , i I
i = bi i I i , i I
i = ai i I .
6 Julius Kning (1849-1913) ,
, , , . .

85

ai < bi i I i I 1-1
fi : i i . Fi i I . Fi ( i i ) {} ( i i ) {} , i I -

, Fi , i I . S S Fi = { fi } , i I .

i = i fi ( i ) , , i < i .

iI

. c i x i ,
iI

iI

f x i : i I f x f i ( x) i ,
iI

x i c (i ) x i .
g : i i g ( x) = f x
iI

iI

g 1-1
x, y i x y . x, y i ,
iI

g ( x) = f x g ( y ) = f y

f x (i ) = fi ( x) fi ( y ) = f y (i ) , g ( x ) g ( y ) x i y j
i j , g ( x) = f x g ( y ) = f y f x (i ) = f i ( x) f i ( i )
f y (i ) = ci f i ( i ) , f x f y , g ( x) g ( y )

g 1-1

iI

iI

=
g : i i ,

= g ( ) g ( ), i I
iI

iI

iI

iI

h g ( i ) , h(i ) i - i . i - i Di .

86
Di i i I Di i , Di i i < i

i I . i = i Di ,

iI

c i , c i , h g ( i ) , i I ,
iI

iI

c = h , c (i ) = h(i ) . c(i ) i h(i ) Di , i Di , .

86
2.7 H 0 c

1 , : + 0 = 0
= { + 1, + 2,}

f : f ( x ) = x + , . = {1, 2, }
= , + 0 = 0 .

2 0 + 0 = 0
,

( )
= , 0 + 0 = 0 .

3 0 = 0 , .
.

4 0 = 0
2

= ,

0 = {1,3,5, 7,...}

1 = {2, 6,10,14,...}
2 = {4,12, 20, 28,...}
3 = {8, 24, 40,56,...}
.
.
.
= {2 ,3 2 ,5 2 , 7 2 ,...}

87
.
.
0 =

= Ak

= 0 0 = 02 .

2 A = {2m3n / m, n
f:

A f ((m, n)) = 2m3n .

A = {2m3n / m, n

.
, B = {(1, n) / n } .
( Cantor-Bernstein)

5 0 =

, .

, .

.
0 + 02 + 30 + = 0 + 0 + 0 + = 00 = 0
, , ..., .

1+ c = c

= {1} (0,1) = = (0,1] . = c .

c +1 = c .

+ c = c , .

A = {0,1, 2,..., n 1} , A1 = (0,1), A2 = (1,2),..., An = (n 1, n) .
n

[0, n) = Ak A , .
k =1

88

8 0 + c = c

= (i, i + 1) ,
i =1

, (1, 2) , c c , = c
= [1, + ) = ,
(1, 2)

c +0 = +

= [1, +) = c .

9 c + c = c
= (0,1) = [1, 2) .
= = (1, 2) , + = ,
c+c =c.

10 nc = c , n 2
n = 2 . n = k .
( k + 1)c = kc + c = c + c = c

11 0 c = c
f : (0,1) (1, + )
f (( , )) = + . f ,
(0,1) (1, +) ,

(0,1) = (1, +) , 0 c = c .

12 ( Cantor)

cc = c2 = c 1

Cantor
: 1
.
.

89
.
1871 1874

. 1-1
. R.Dedekind :
, .
, G.Cantor.
1 (0,1) (0,1)
(0,1) . .
0,23 0,22999 ... , .
( ), . , ...
x = 0,50800579... ,

1 = 5, 2 = 08, 3 = 005 , 4 = 7, 5 = 9,...

y = 0,0430070100 5...
1 = 04, 2 = 3, 3 = 007, 4 = 01, 5 = 005,...
(0,1) (0,1) ,
( x, y ) z (0,1) ,
:
x , y , x ,
y ... ( x, y )
z = 0,5040830050 077019005 ...
( x, y ) z
z , ( x, y ) . (0,1) (0,1) (0,1) 1-1 ,
(0,1) (0,1) (0,1) , cc = c 2

, Du Bois -Reymond

90
2 (Hausdorff)
(0,1] (0,1] (0,1] . x (0,1] x +x

x +x + +x

1
1
2
1
2
n
1 1
1
x = +
+ +
+ ,
2 2
2
xn . (0,1] . xn x (0,1] yn
y (0,1] , (0,1] (0,1]
(0,1] ( x, y )

x +y

x + y +x

x + y +x + y

1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1 1
1
1
+
+
+ .
z = +
2 2
2
2
.

cc = 2 0 2 0 = 2 0 + 0 = 2 0 = c

13 c = c

14 c 0 = c

= (2 ) = 20 = 2 = c
2

15 n {2,3,..., n,...} , n = c
0

20 n0 c0 , 20 n0 ( 20 ) , 2c n0 2c ,
0

n0 = c

1.
.
, .

3 - , .

91
2. 0 c ,
:
1. a < b a + d < b + d
2. d a < b ad < bd
3. a < b a < b , a d < b d d a < d b .
2 < 3 2 +0 = 3 +0 ,
2 < 3 2 0 = 3 0

2 < 3 20 = 30 02 = 30
3. ( *+ )
Cantor,

, *+ = / , ( , ) = 1 .

f : *+ f = 2 3 , 1-1

= {2 3 / } . f ( *+ ) ,
f(
*
+

*
+

= f(

)
*
+

, 0 f (

*
+

) 0 ,

) = 0

16 A A = c { B1 , B2 ,..., Bn ,...}
A , k Bk = c

n Bn A Bn c . = , ( Kning)
c=

k =1

k =1

k =1

= Bk < A = c0 = c , .

. .
Bn < c , n . A

,
(
= c0 = c )

92
prn

, prn (a ) n -

( prn ( Bn ) = c ) -

a . prn ( Bn )
a
*
n

prn ( Bn ) . (a , a ,..., a ,...) Bn ( *

1

*
2

*
n

n =1

), .

1. ,
a ( , a ) (a, + ) .
2.
, a
( a + ) = .
3.
.
4. C C = 2C = 3C = 4C =

= C0

5.
.
6. 14,

, lim

=0

7. .
8.
.
9.

[ , +1)

93
10.

, c .

11. Kning Cantor,

< ( )
12. = 0 ,

94
2.8

1
, .
1
. 2 = ( ) 1 . , 1 2
= 1 2 . 1 ( 0 +0 = 0 ), f : 1 1 . g :

f ( x) , x 1
g ( x) =
, , .
, x 2
x

2 .
1 1 f ( x) = a n x n + a n 1 x n 1 + + a1 x + a 0 , n . a n > 0 .
h = n + a n + a n1 + + a0 .
. 2 x, 2, 2 . 3
x 2 , 2 x, x + 1, x 1,3, 3 . 4 x3 , 2 x 2 , x 2 + 1, x 2 1, x 2, x + 2,
2 x 1, 2 x + 1, 4, 4 ... ,
.
2 f : .
a0 , a1 ,..., an f ( x) = a n x n + a n 1 x n 1 + + a1 x + a 0 f b1 ,..., bn . 2b1 3b2 ... pn bn , pn n-
. , >1 >1 , , . x 2 x + 3
26 30 52 = 1600 , x 3 x + 1
2 2 30 51 7 6 = 2352980 .. 2
x , 3 x 2 1 ... ,
= {2,3, 4,...} 2

3 n
n , n
1 Cantor.
2 f : f ( x) = x + 1

95
n , n . A
An n ,

A=

n =1

=
n =1

= 00 = 0

3 .
( , .)
.
(1). n
, 0 =
n , n n

n n0 = 0 , =

n =1

n =1

n = n 00 = 0 (2). (1) (2) -

4 .
, ,
,
.
. , Euler, .
, , , . 1844 Liouville 3 , ( )

1
! = 0,110001... , Liouville
=1 10
. (1873) Hermite 4 e
1882 Lindemann 5 .
, 0 1
, , Hilbert 2
3 Joseph Liouville (1809-1822)
.
( Liouville), , . (Journal des
Mathmatiques),
Evariste Galois (1812-1832),
.
4 Charles Hermite (1822-1901) , , .
5 Ferdinand von Lindemann (1852-1939)

96
( 7 23 ) 1934 Gelfond 6 .

5 7
1
, ,

6 = ,

7 = ,

6 Alexander Gelfond (1906-1968) 1931

. 1939 . ,
.
7 .

97
3.1
1 .
- ,
(partial order)
(partially ordered set poset) .
2
x, y x y , x y y x .
3 x, y , z
x y y z , y x z
x, y x y x y y x ( ), (total order)
(totally ordered) (chain)
. 1
K. Kuratowski (Fundamenta Mathematica 2-1921, 161-170)
, :

, .

.
x, y x r y x

y . r .
r . x x r x ,
x x , .
r . x r y y r z ,
, x y y z .
. , y , ,
. z z , x
z , x r z .
r .
x, y , , x r y ,
y r x , x y ,

98

1. ( ) .
(( ), )
1. ( ) 2. ,
. (( ), ) , x, y x y -

{ x} { y} , { y} { x} .
2. :
( x, y ) ( z , w) x < z y < w
1. x ( x, x ) ( x, x )
2. ( x1 , y1 ) ( x2 , y2 ) ( x2 , y2 ) ( x3 , y3 )
( x1 , y1 ) ( x3 , y3 ) . ( , )
, (1,3) (3,1) (3,1) (1,3).
3. ,
, :
( x, y ) ( z , w) x < z ( x = z y < w)
( , ) .
4.
( )
f ( x)
: f g lim
=0
x + g ( x )
, .
: f g f ( x ) < g ( x )
x
5.

( ) ( )

x y . = { x}
, , .
= {} , , .

99

< , .

2 + 1 2 + 1
<
( , ) ( , )
2
2
.

6.

7.

.
, , 3 5
53
8. Oxy 1.

(0,)

(0,0)

(,)

(,0)

100

: ( x, y ) ( z , w) x < z y < w .
.
,
, ,
y = x + , >0.

Hasse
( , ) ,

4 ,
, , (comparable).
, (incomparable)

101
5 , (antichain)
6 ,
x x , ,
.
7 ,
x x , ,
.
8 ,
x { } x , ,
, .
9 ,
x { } x , ,
.
,
{ } .

1 ( , )
, (. ) ,
.
.

() , () .
1. ,
( ) ,
. , ,

102

{ x} , x . (), () .

{1} 7.
. A k
m A m = kr , r
. A k
m A k = mr , r
| A |< 0 k , A
. A , ,
A .
. A , ,
A .
2. A

3. Ak = {1 2k ,3 2k ,5 2k ,...} , k = 0,1, 2,... ,

A = ( Ak ) B = ( A) {, A} .
k =0

. B {2 k } , k = 0,1, 2,... , B
Ak , k = 0,1,2,...
B , .
10 -
.
11 , x

x { } . ,
.

 12 , x

103

x { } . ,
.
13 ,
.

14 | | 2 .
.
( , 1 ),
(infimum)
inf . = { x} , inf = x
15 | | 2 .
.
( , 1 ),
(supremum)
sup . = { x} , sup = x
1. (. ) , inf = (. sup = )
2. ,
supremum, infimum.


< ( ),
= {x / x x 2 < 2} , supremum,
= { x / x

x 2 > 3}

infimum.

2 ( , )
( ) = , ( , )
1.
2. , , .

104

16
, ( ) .
17 ,
( ) .
( , ) , ( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) = ( ) ( ) = .
18 ,
, , , .
19
, ,
, .
.
20 - ( , )
, ,

.
21 (cofinal)

105
22 ( , ) , .
.
.
23 ,
, .

3 ( , ) ,

4 ( , ) , .
( )
= {1 , 2 ,..., n } ,
. = {1 , 2 ,..., n }
n1 , nk n1 nk .

n , n . ,
, ,
, ,
k . , m n
1

k . m n , n , m , ,
k .
1

O A. Tarski 2 :
Alfred Tarski ,
1902. ,
(Lukasiewicz, Sierpinski, Mazurkiewicz, .). 1921
19
. 1923 (

106
A .

.

A U .
A B A = n, n , B U , -

B0 U B0 = min B / B U . B0 U .

A , A = {a1 , a2 ,..., an ,...} , An , n

, An = A {a1 , a2 ,..., an } -

A , , .

, , .

,

Tietelbaum) ( ),
,
, . 1924 ,
S. Banach , (Sur la dcomposition des
ensembles de points en parties resrpectivement congruente-Fundamenta Mathematica 4, 244-277).
1939,
, , . ,
.
, . ,
(1983), Berkeley.
, .

 . = {1 , 2 , 3 ,} -

107

< ,

(1 , 2 , 3 ,)

,
.

1. :
(1, 2,3,) , , .
2. :
(, 3, 2, 1) , , .
3.

( 2, 4, 6,,1,3,5,) , , .
4.

( 2, 4, 6, ,5,3,1) , .
5.
1 1 ,
( 2, 4, 6,,1) , .
6.
,
2 , 2 2
... :
(1,3,5,..., 2,3 2,5 2,..., 22 ,3 22 ,5 22 ,...) .
, .
7.

: (..., 5, 3,1, 2, 4, 6,...) , .
8. :

108
1 3 5
1 2 4
1 3 5

1, 2,3, , , , , , , , , , , , , 2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4

, .

-
9. (0,1),
- .
10. , ,
, ( , ) ( , ) ,
< = < , -.

.
3.2
1 ( , ) (lattice) ,

sup { , } inf { , } .
3 .

1 ,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

x x = x , x
x x = x , x
x y = y x , x, y
x y = y x , x, y
x ( y z ) = ( x y ) z , x, y , z
x ( y z ) = ( x y ) z , x, y , z
x ( x y ) = x , x, y
x ( x y ) = x , x, y

x = y , sup { x, y} = inf { x, y} = x

109

2
1 8 1,
,
x y = sup { x, y} x y = inf { x, y}
x y x y sup { x, y} = y 4
x x , x x y y z ,

y = sup { x, y} z = sup { y, z} ,
x z = x ( y z ) = ( x y ) z = y z = z . z = x ,
y = sup { z, y} z = sup { y, z} , y = z . x z .

1. , ( )
( ) .
2. M ( )
B, C M , B C M B C M ,
M , .
3.
7 .
4. p1 , p2 ,..., pn ,

A = p m1 p m2 ... p mn / m1 , m2 ,..., mn

} -

7 .
3 4 x y = [ x, y ] , x, y x y = ( x, y ) ,
x, y .

x y = y x y = x -

x y x y inf { x, y} = x

110
3.3 .
1
f : , 5 ,
, f ( ) f ( ) ,

.

. f :
.

.
2 ,
1
,
1 .
, 1 , , * .
3
, , ,
.
4
(countable chain condition
c.c.c.),
, , .

111
5 1 , 2
1 2 = . 1
2 , , ( 1 , 2 )
(cut) [ 1 , 2 ]

6 [ 1 , 2 ]
, 1 2 , (jump)

1 ,
(1)
(2)

7 [ 1 , 2 ]
, 1 2
, (gap)

8 , , , (continuum)
1.

0.
2. .
1.
3. 2
f : {1, 2,..., } .
, f 1 ( ) < f 1 ( ) .

.

112
4. , (1,2,3,)
, *
,
(,3,2,1)
.

2
f :
x1 , x2 x1 x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) .
f .
3 ,
4 ,
( 2 ),
.
( , ) = (1 , 2 ,..., ) (, ) = ( 1 , 2 ,..., )
f : f ( ) =

{1, 2,..., } . f ,
< , , f ( ) f ( ) , f , .

5
, f : , f f 1 : ,
.
f ,
f 1 , f 1-1. x1 , x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x2 x1 .
x1 x2 , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) . x2 x1 , f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) ,
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) , f 1-1.

113
x1 , x2 x1 x2 f 1 ( x2 ) f 1 ( x1 ) ,
f ( f 1 ( x2 )) f ( f 1 ( x1 )) , x2 x1 , ,

x1 , x2 x1 x2 , f 1 ( x1 ) f 1 ( x2 ) , f 1 .

6 ,

4

7 , ,
f : , g : ,
g f : .
.

8 ( , ) , (, ) , (, ) . .
6

9 ( , ) , ,
( ) ( )
( ) , x ( ) , x
x , x ( ) , ( ) ( ) . ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) .
() ( ) ( ) . = , ( ) = ( ) , .
, ( ) ( ) , . .

10 ( , ) (, ) f : ,
(. ) f ( )
(. ) .

114
f ( )
, ,
f ( ) , f ( ) . f
= f ( ) . f ( ) f ( ) , ,
.
.

11 ( , ) (, ) (. ) , ,
.
(2,4,6,) (,5,3,1) ,
(2,4,6,) (,5,3,1,2,4,6,)

12 ( , ) (, )
, ( ) f :
, f ( ( )) = ( f ( ))
y f ( ( )) , x ( ) , y = f ( x) .
x , f ( x) f ( ) , y ( f ( ))
y ( f ( )) , y f ( ) . x
y = f ( x) , f ( x) f ( ) , x , x ( ) ,
y f ( ( )) . f ( ( )) = ( f ( )) .

13 ( , ) (, )
, ( ) = ( f ( )) , f
.
f

( ) = f ( ( ))
f ( ( )) = ( f ( )) , ( ) = ( f ( ))

115

14 ( , ) (, )
( ) ( ) ,
.
15 ( , ) (, )
, ( ) f : , f ( ( )) = ( f ( ))
11.

16 ( , ) (, ) ,
( ) = ( f ( )) , f
.
12

17 ( , ) (, ) ,
( ) ( ) ,
.
18 ( , ) (, )
( , ) f :
, ( , ) = ( f ( ), f ( ))

x ( , ) 1 x 1 f ( ) 2 f ( x) 2 f ( )

f ( x) ( f ( ), f ( ))
f ( , ) ( f ( ), f ( )) .
1-1 f ,
.

116
1.
. (2,4,6,) (6,4,2),

.
2. CantorBernstein , ,
, ,
. [0,1] [0,1)
, , .
[0,1]
1
x
[0, ] ( f ( x) = ) [0,1)
2
2
.

19 A
.
.
k a A ,
| ( a ) |= k . f : A f (k ) = a | (a ) |= k ,
, , ,
(1, 2,3,...) A .

20

.
18

117
3.4

1 ,
.
.

2 , ,
.
= {1 , 2 ,..., ,...} = {1 , 2 ,..., ,...}
. f : , 1
1 , (1) , f (1 ) = (1) .
2 1 . , , ,
(1) .
2 1 , f ( 2 )
(1) .
2 1 , f ( 2 )

(1) .
f ( 2 ) = (2) .
3 1 2 ,
. (1) (2)
.
(1) (2) . 3 (1) (2)
( ,
). f ( 3 ) = (3) .

118
, - ,
1 , 2 ,...,

(1) , (2) ,..., ( ) . , , +1

( +1) . +1
1 , 2 ,..., 1 , 2 ,...,
,
. +1
(1) , (2) ,..., ( )
. +1
(1) , (2) ,..., ( )
.
+1 ( )

( ) .

. *
f ( ) = ( ) .

, f . 1 = (1) = f (1 ) .

S = {1 , 2 ,..., } , f S
. . , ,
+1 , ,
.
+1 S = { (1) , (2) ,..., ( ) } , .
+1 S = { (1) , (2) ,..., ( ) } ,

119
1. +1 S
2. +1 S
3. +1 , , -

S . S = {1 , 2 ,..., }
S . > . -

{1 , 2 ,..., 1}

1 = , 1 >
< < ,
S
, . < < ( )
S . S
< , . < < 1
( ) ( ) , +1 ( )

{ (1) , (2) ,..., ( ) ,..., ( 1) } +1

{ (1) , (2) ,..., ( ) ,..., ( 1) } , +1 = f ( ) = ( ) , . 2 3.
, - . ,
( ) .
.
1
, ,
supremum.

120

.

3 , .

,
, .
1. , .
2. , .
3. .
4. () ,
x < x < x x
= sup = inf

.

5 2 ,
,
.

4 ( , 1 ) (, 2 ) , f : , ,
1. = sup f ( ) = sup f ( )
2. = inf f ( ) = inf f ()

121

5 ( , )

(1) supremum
(2) infimum
(1) (2)
. . , ,
supremum, . .
, , ,
, supremum.
,
, = inf .
(2) (1)

6 ) ,
.
) ,
.

7 , ,
.
, . 2
, . 6, , , .

9 ( , ) ,
, , , , .
x x { } ,
y y ,

122
1 y 1 ,
. .
(
) .
f : . .

= { x / x x < } . sup =
f () ( y
< y , x < y x , f ( x ) f ( y ) ,
f ( x ) f ( ) , f ( y ) f () ), = sup f ( ) .
, f 1 ( ) = sup f 1 ( f ()) , f 1 ( ) = sup , f 1 ( ) = , , . , .
g : g ( ) = f ( ) ,
g ( ) = , ,
.
g
f ( ) = g ( ) = .

= { x / x x } .
sup = , sup = , x ,
x , y
y , , y y .
f 1 () f 1 ()
x x ,
f 1 ( x) < f 1 ( ) , x , f 1 ( )
f 1 () . f 1 () supremum,
sup f 1 () = . , sup = f ( ) , .
g g ( ) = .
g

. x, y , x < y f ( x ) f ( y ) ,
g ( x) g ( y ) .

123
. y , y < g ( y ) g ( ) .
g g ( ) = sup f () ,

= { x / x x < } . y , f ( y ) f ( ) ,
f ( y ) g ( ) , g ( y ) g ( )
. , < , x
< x < , g ( ) g ( x ) g ( x ) g ( ) ( ),
g ( ) g ( ) .
, .

10 ,
(1)
(2) ,
11 ,
.

.
, . = , . 1 , = 1 1 ,

1 0 . 0 , = 0 .
1920 1 Fundamenta Mathematica M. Souslin
: , ,


;

124

. Souslin 6
, , ,
.
Souslin.

1. , .
2. ( ) ,

, ( ) 2

3.

4. :
,
:
1.
2.
3.
4. 1 3, h : h( p ) = p p .
5. U

Mikhail Yakovlevich Suslin (1894-1919) ,

, ,
.
6

125

f :
, f .

f a :

c U c (1).

f a ( x) = x + a ,

U c (2). (1) (2) U = c

6. V
.

0 0 = c ,

V c (1)
x (0,1) 0, a1a2 ...an ...
x f x
1. f (r ) = r , r 1
2. f x (r ) = r , r > 1 a[ r ] = 0
3. k x < k +

1
,k
2

r+k

2
3
k +1
ak = 1 , f x ( r ) = r
2
2

ak = 1 , f x ( r ) =

1
x < k + 1, k
2
f x
4. k +

y (0,1), y x 0, b1b2 ...bn ...

y . y x k ak = bk .
ak = 0, bk = 1 . k < r < k + 1 , f x ( r ) f y ( r ) . V (0,1) = c (2). (1)
(2) V = c
7. ,
. {, } {, }
, ,
. f : f ( ) = f ( ) =

126
8.



p1 , p2 ,..., pn ,... ,

/ l , (l , p) = 1 A0 =
k
pn

An =

An .
n =1

A0 , A1 , A2 ,..., An ,...

9. 2 0 ,
( )
.
2 0 ,
,

Ax = 2 n 1 (2 [ nx ] + 1) / n

n
m
n m , 2 (2 [ nx ] + 1) 2 (2 [ mx ] + 1) )

} , x (0, +) (

x y , Ax Ay < 0
x y > 0 . p, q

p
q
2 (2 [ px ] + 1) = 2 (2 [ qx ] + 1) ,

p = q [ px ] = [ qx ] , px qy < 1 , p <

1
.
x y

1
,
x y

Ax , Ay
.

/ l ,(l , pn ) = 1, l < pn2 .

pn

Q(n) =
Bx =

Q(2
n =1

n 1

(2 [ nx ] + 1)), x (0, +) B0 =

Bx
x>0

10. ,

9

 A, B A1 , B1

127

, f : A B
f ( A1 ) = B1 .
D ,
.
D .
f : f ( ) = f ( D ) .
f ( ) = f ( ) = f ( D ) = f ( ( D )) .
11. [0,1]
Cantor .
12. { x / | x |> 1} {0}
13.
.

14. ,
x y { x} < { y} { x} = { y}

[ x ] < [ y ] .

x x 1 -

x + 1
15. ,

16. .
17. , , ,
c
c
,

128
18. (0,1) ( )
19. {0,1}
Cantor .
20.

[0,1) .
21.

1 A

a A a > 0

A (a, a + a ) = , A 0

U = {(a, a + a ) / a A, a > 0,(a, a + a ) A = } (

a A a )

U , U 0 .

f : U A
,
2 A

f ( (a, a + a ) ) = a .

A = f (U ) U 0

A > 0 , a A -

an A an a
a A
b > a , (a, b) A .

a1 A a < a1 < a + 1 , a2 A a < a2 < 1 = min a1 , a + . 2

< a2 < a1
a1 , a2 ,..., an A an < an 1 <
1
a < ak < a + , k = 1, 2,..., n an +1 A
k
1

a < an +1 < n = min an , a +

. an
n + 1

an a .

129
A
{a1 , a2 ,..., an ,...} .
Forum
www.mahematica.gr

x A { y A / y > x} . x , ( x, x) , x A , -

.
A , .

130
3.5 .
1
,
, ,
, . ,
+ .

1 ,
,
, + + .
1 , 2 , 1 , 2
, , , . , f :
x, y , x 1 y f ( x) 1 f ( y ) . ,
g : x, y , x 2 y g ( x) 2 g ( y ) .
h : h( x) = f ( x ) , x
h( x ) = g ( x ) , x . h
+ + .
2 , +
+ .
, +
,
.

2 .

131
,
.
1. 1 + (0,1, 2,...) ,
, + 1 (1, 2,...,0) , ,
1 + + 1 .
2. + * (1, 2, 3, , 3, 2, 1) ,
, * + ( , 3, 2, 1,1, 2, 3,) ,
, + * * +

3 , , , ( + )* = * + * .
, , 1 , 2 .
+ ,
* + * .
f : f ( x ) = x ,
x, y x y x, y y 2 x x, y y 1 x
x y y x x 1 y f ( x) 1 f ( y ) , .

4 + =


( + 1, + 2,...) . f : ( + 1, + 2, + 3,...) f ( x ) = x + ,
.
(1, 2, 3,...) = (1, 2, 3,..., ) + ( + 1, + 2, + 3,...) , + =

132

5 + + , ,
< , ..

+
+ , ,
, (
16 3.2) ,
+ +
+ 1

{1, 2,..., } 1 , > 1

6 = * +
.
: (,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,)=
(,-3,-2,-1)+(0,1,2,3,), = * +

3
,
,

, ,

, , .
1

7 , ,

133

, f : ,
x, y x y f ( x) f ( y ) , -

. f :

f ( x) = f ( x) x

.

4
, , ,

(1, 2, 3,...) = (1) + (2, 3) + (4,5, 6) +

=1+ 2 + 3 +

134
,

. = , ,

8 , + ( + ) = ( + ) + , , , .
1. *+ * , , , ,
+ 1 + = , = * + (0) + *+
2. * *+ , , , + =
3. (0,1) (1, 2) (0, 2)
.
(0, 2) = (0,1) + (1) + (1, 2) = + 1 +
4. (0, 2) ( 2, 2) , (0, 2) + ( 2, 2) , ( (0, 2) , supremum 2 ), + .
5. + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + I1 + (1) + I 2 + (2) + I 3 + (3) + ,
I n (n 1, n) , ,
, (0, +) , + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + =
6.
( ) ,

135
(0,1) .
7 f : (0,1)
x
1
2 + 2 x + x , x > 0
f ( x) =
1 + x , x < 0
2 x 2 x
(1, 2) (0, 2) (
( g : (0,1) (1, 2) , g ( x ) = x + 1
h : (0,1) (0, 2), h( x ) = 2 x )
[(0,1) ] + [(1, 2) ] = [(0, 2) ] , + = .

1. 1 + = ,
= +
2.
, = + 1 +

5
, ,
( , ) ( , ) ( = ) . (first difference principle). ,

, ,

{ } , { }

B. K. Gelbaum : Problems in Real and Complex Analysis p. 159)

136

9 , ,
,

1 , 2 , 1 , 2
, , , . ,
, . f : g :
. h :
h(( a, b)) = ( f ( a ), g (b)) . h
(a1 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 ) , a1 1 a2 a1 = a2 b1 2 b2 ,
f (a1 ) f (a2 ) f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) g (b1 ) 2 g (b2 ) ,
( f (a1 ), g (b1 )) ( f (a2 ), g (b2 )) , h((a1 , b1 )) h((a2 , b2 )) ,

6 ,
8
1.
,
.
2.
1 = 1 = , .

10
.
, Sierpinski Kuratowski

(last difference principle),
( , ) ( , ) = .
,
.

137

1.
1 = 1 = .
2. , .
. = (1, 2, 3,) = ( , ) .

( (1, ), (1, ), (2, ), (2, ),) ,

( ( ,1), ( , 2),, ( ,1), ( , 2),) .
,
,
,
( ,1) , .
2 2
. * ,
* , . * *

1, , ( ) 1 = 1 ,
.

11 ( ) = * *
*

1 , 2 , .
1 ( )
*

* * * ,

f : ( , 1 ) ( , * ) f ( (b, a) ) = (b, a) . f -

(b2 , a2 ) 1 (b1 , a1 ) , (b1 , a1 ) (b2 , a2 ) , b1 2 b2

b1 = b2 a1 1 a2 , f (b2 ) _2 1 f (b1 ) f (b2 ) = f (b1 )

f ( a2 ) 11 f (a1 ) , f ((b2 , a2 )) * f ((b1 , a1 )) .

138

12
,

= .

,
, .
f : ,

f : , f ( ) = ( , f ( ))

( ),

, = .

= (1 , 2 ) = (1, 2,3,)

= ( (1 ,1), (1 , 2), (1 ,3), , ( 2 ,1),( 2 , 2), ( 3 ,3),)

= ( (1 ,1), (1 , 2), (1 ,3),) + ( ( 2 ,1), ( 2 , 2), ( 2 ,3),) ,

2 = +
3 = + + , + + + = ( )
+ + + = ( )
=
+ +

13 , , ,
( + ) = + .
,
,
i : ( ) ( ) ( ) i ( y , ) = ( y , ) .
( + ) = + .

139
( + 1) 2 = + 1 + + 1 = + + 1 = 2 + 1 2 + 2 9

14 = , 2
= {1 , 2 ,..., } ,

= ( (1, 1 ), (1, 2 ),..., (1, ),(2, 1 ),(2, 2 ),...,(2, ),...)

f :
f (( , i )) = ( 1) + i ,
, = f (1, ) . > , i i <
= + i , = f ( + 1, i ) .

: ( , i ) ( , j ) , < = i < j .
( 1) + i < ( 1) + j ,
f (( , i )) < f (( , j ))
1. 2 = + = , 2 ,

A = {a, b} , 2 A
, ,
( r , a ), ( r , b) .
2. 2 = , n = ,
n
3. A ,
. x = {( x, r ) / r } ,
x A ( ), . A ,

x A

, ,

, = .

1 + = ,
(1, 2,...) (0,1, 2,...) .
9

140
4. + 1 + = , 2 = ( + 1 + ) = 2 + + 2 . 2
+ 2 ,
2 = 2 + + 2 , , 2 .

2 = ,
f : 2 ( 2 ). -

f ( ( x, a) ) = ax f ( ( x, b) ) = bx . a < b x < y ,

ax < bx < a y < by , ( ax , bx ) ( a y , by ) = , 1-1

g : A , A , .
5. n 2 ,
) , n = {( n, x ) / x } (

. A = {1,2,..., n} , A

, -

n ,

n A

. n 1 .

n, m n m , m n .
, , .
6.
= , f : .
a r1 , r2 , r1 < r2 , ( x1 , x2 ) , x1 = (a, r1 ) x2 = (a, r2 ) , ,
( f ( x1 ), f ( x2 )) , .


7 ( 1 , 1 ) , ( 2 , 2 ) ,, ( , ) , 1 2

141
(1 , 2 ,..., ) ( 1 , 2 ,..., )
{1, 2,..., }

, 10 .
1 2 ,
1 , 2 ,...,
1 2

14

( 1 , 1 ) , ( 2 , 2 ) ,, ( , )
(1 , 2 ) , (2 , 2 ) ,, ( , ) ,
1 2
1 2

1 2 1 2 .

{1, 2,..., }

f : , {1, 2,..., } .
f : 1 2 1 2 ,
f (1 , 2 ,..., ) = ( f (1 ), f ( 2 ),..., f ( ))
f .
(1 , 2 ,..., ) ( 1 , 2 ,..., ) ,
{1, 2,..., } ,

f ( ) f ( ) . f ( ) = f ( ) , <
f ( ) f ( )
10

142
( f1 (1 ), f 2 ( 2 ),..., f ( )) ( f1 ( 1 ), f 2 ( 2 ),..., f ( )) , f (1 , 2 ,..., ) f ( 1 , 2 ,..., ) , f
, 1 2 1 2 .

.
8 1 , 2 ,..., 1 , 2 ,...,
1 2 1 1 .
1. , ,
, ( ) = ( ) .
2. 9 7
. .
, ,
. , 1 , 2 ,... ,
1 , 2 ,... .
9
2 1 . , .
(..., ,..., 2 , 1 ) 1 1 , 2 2 ,
,
(..., ,..., 2 , 1 ) (..., ,..., 2 , 1 )
. ,
.

143

. .
.
2 1
1 2 .
, *

.
9
, ,
= .
,
= .

15 ,
= =
16 1 , 2 ,...,

1 2 = 1 1 = 1 2

17 i , i I I ,

=
iI

iI

144

1. * , * = * =
2.
( ) < ( ) [ ( ) = ( ) < ] ,
( ) > 1
(1) = 1 .
2 .
3. 1
1

+ 1
4. A1 + B1 A2 + B2 , A1 , A2 B1 , B2
, A1 = A2
f : A1 + B1 A2 + B2 , . a A1 f (a ) B2 , ( a )
, ( f (a) ) , .

b B1 f (b) A2 ,

f ( A1 ) = A2 , A1 = A2 .
5. B1 + A1 B2 + A2 , A1 , A2 B1 , B2
, A1 = A2
.
6. A1 , A2 ,..., An ,... B1 , B2 ,..., Bn ,... A1 +

+ A2 +

B1 +

An = Bn n
.

+ B2 +

, -

145
7. (n1 , n2 ,..., nk ,...) (m1 , m2 ,..., mk ,...)
, n1 + + n2 + +

m1 + + m2 + +

= + .
.
*

8. A 2 0

2 0
r A ,

r2

= 20 (1)

, , -

, r

= 20 (2)

(1) (2) .
9.
2c .
r

2

, r 2 = 2c (1). ,
A A , , B .
, ,
A + B , r 2c (2). (1) (2) .
10. + .
A = [(0,1)

+ = ( + 1)

B = [(0,1] ]

, . an -

(0,1) lim an = 1 .

C = {(an ,1) / n

A B . A

supremum (1,1) , B ,
.

146
11. ( ) 2 = ( + ) .
2

2
12. + = ( + )

13. (fixed point)

, .
. + + * , .
. * + + + * + .
. * + .
14.
0 0 , + .
16.
,
1 + .


[0,1)
[0,1) . f :

( ( n , n , n ,..., n ,...) ) = 1 2
1

n1

2 n1 n2

. ( 0 = f

2 n1 n2

nk

( (1,1,...,1,...) ) )

16. = 1 +

17. A {0,1} ,

1. A ,
,
.
A .
, , .
,

147
. x = ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ,...) , y = ( y1 , y2 ,..., yn ,...) A
x y k xk = yk = 0 .
x y yk +1 = 1 xk +1 = 0 . z A , k + 1 0 1 x , x z y , .
x A , 1
k , m ( m < k ),
x , 1 k
, 0 m k 1 ,
2m 1 , , .
18.

1 1
An = + +
k1 k2

1
/ k1 , k2 ,..., kn ;
kn

1 1

1
/ k1 , k2 ,..., kn ,
An =
kn
k1 k2

n , . An n An
( n )*

148
4.1

. .
1
. .

0 .

1.
.
2. (2,4,6,,1) + 1 .
3. (2,4,6,,1,3,5,)
+ .
4.
(1,3,5,..., 2, 2 3, 2 5,..., 22 ,3 22 ,5 22 ,...) ,

.
5.
* .
6.
* + = .
7. .
8.

.

149

1
,
.
.

2
, .
.

3
*

* , ,
.
, ,
. x
Qx = { y y x} .
f Qx ( ) p1 .
x

, a1 = p1 an +1 = f (an ) .

an +1 an n , {an , n
.

4 ( Zermelo).
( , ) f :
, ,
f ( ) = f ( ) .
f ( ) .

150
f ( ) .

1 = { / f ( ) } , , -

0 . 0 f ( 0 ) 0 ( f
) f ( f ( 0 )) f ( 0 ) , f ( 0 )
1 , 0 , 1 .

5 , .
, ( ) , .
f : ( )
( ) , f ( ) ( ) , f ( ) , .
2 , , <
.

6
< .
5.

7
f : , f = i

f ( ) , (. Zermelo)
f ( ) . f 1
f 1 ( ) f 1 ( f ( )) , f 1 ( ) , .

Zermelo

151

8 , ,
f :
f : g : ,
g 1 : ,
g 1 f : . g 1 f = i , g ( g 1 f ) = g i ,
( g g 1 ) f = g , i f = g , f = g .

9
, , .
, , .
.
, ,
, , ,
.

10 -.

. = { x / x x} . , ,
,
, .

11 , , < < ,
<
, , , . < , ( ) ( ) . < ,
( ) ( ) . g

152
( ) . g ( ( )) = ( )
( ) , . : ( )
( ) ( ) , ( ) , <

12 , , =
, < < , < ,
.

13
.
( , ) . 1
, 2

{1} = 1 , 1 . -

1 , 2 ,..., 1 , +1
, = 1, 2,..., 1 . +1

+1 = {1 , 2 ,..., } ,

(1 , 2 ,..., ,...) , ,

(1 , 2 ,..., ,...) , .

4.2 -

1 ,
+ +
.
+ = .
= , , . , ,

153
, .
,
= ( ) ( ) , . +

2 , ,
+ , + .
1

3 ,

= { , } . , , ,
, 0 . 0 ,
,

4 ,

, .

5 ,

.

154
. 1 1
( , ) . 1 ,
. 0 1 .
2 2 ( 0 , ) .
2 , ,
0 . ( 0 , 0 ) , . .

6 , ,
, .
7 1 , 2 ,..., ,
1 2

8 1 , 2 ,..., , 1 2 .
1.

0 = 1 , 1 =
, +1 = .
2. 4.4

155

9 , < , > 0 = +
= , = . <
( ) ( ) . ( ) ,

( ) > 0 . = ( ) + ( ) ,
= ( ) + ( ) = + .
= + , > 0 = , = ,

= , ( , ) , ( , 1 ) , ( , 2 )
= + . ,
, = ( ) , ( ) , ( )
, <
1 , , W ( )
W (0) = , W (1) = {0} , W (2) = {0,1} ,,

W ( ) = {0,1, 2,..., 1} ,, W ( ) = {0,1, 2,...}

10 W ( ) <
W ( ) = .
( , ) = .
f : W ( ) f ( ) = ( ) .
f :
.
( ) ,
( ) = < , ( ) W ( ) .
.

156
W ( ) = ,
< , , ( ) ,

( ) , ( ) = ,
f ( ) = . f .
.

,
f ( ) < f ( . ( ) ( ) , ( )
( ) , ( ) < ( ) , f ( ) < f ( ) ,
.

,
W ( )

11
< W ( ) W ( ) = W ( ) = W ( )
12 ( )
, ,
< < =
, .
= W ( ) W ( ) 1 = W ( ) 2 = W ( ) .
1 2 . . 1 , W ( ) , 1 . W ( 1 ) = .
< 1 , 1 <
< , W ( ) . 1 . 1 1 , ,
W ( 1 ) (1)

157
. W ( ) 1 W ( )
W ( ) 1 < 1 .
1 < 1 < , 1 W ( ) ,
1 W ( ) W ( ) = , . < 1 ,
W ( 1 ) , W ( 1 ) (2). (1) (2)
W ( 1 ) = . W ( 2 ) = , W ( 1 ) = W ( 2 ) ,
1 = 2 = , W ( ) W ( ) , , . 1 = 2 = .
, W ( ) = , W ( ) W ( ) , .
.

. = < ,
< , . < < , < . .
,
, , . , .

13 ,

< , ( )
( ) .
f : ( ) . , f ( ) ( ) , f ( ) , .

14 ,
, .

158
. 13 4.1
. , , = .
= (2, 4,8,..., 2 ,...) , =

15 , , < ,
1) + < +
2) + +
3) , > 0
4) < , > 0
1. < > 0
= + , + = ( + ) + , + < +
2. , ,

= , = , = , .
< ( ) ( ) ,
( ) + + , ( ) + = +
( ) + + , ( ) + + ,

+ + , + + , + + .
3. , ,
= , = , =
< ( )
( ) , ( ) , ( ) =
( ) , ( ) ,

, , .
4. < ,
> 0 = + , =
( + ) = + , <

16 , , <
< , + < +

159
< , + + (1)
< , + < + (2). (1) (2)
+ < + ( )

17 , , 0 < <
0 < < , <
< , (1)
< , < (2). (1) (2)
< ( )

18 , ,
. + < + <
. + < + <
. , + + , .
. , + + , .

19 , , > 0
. < <
. < <
. , , .
. , , .

20 , , :
+ = + =
< , + < + , . < , = .

21 , , 0
= =

160
< , < , . < , = .
,
. 2 + = 3 + = ,
2 3 3 = 4 = , 3 4 .

22 ( )
, 1 < < ,
, , > 0 W ( ) ,
= + .
1. , = + 1 .
1 < , + 1 , < .
= W ( ) W ( ) <
R1 R = W ( ) W ( ) R1 = . R1
( y , x ) , ( , ) . R1

Q1 = {( y, x) / y < , x W ( )} = { y / y < } W ( )

Q2 = {( y, x) / y = , x < } . Q1 Q2 = , R1 Q1 + Q2 , R1 = Q1 + Q2 = + ,
= + . < , , W ( ) .
2. : 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 1 = 2 1 = 2 . 1 2
.
1 < 2 , 1 + 1 2 , 1 + 2 ,
1 + 2 + 2 , 1 + 1 + 1 , 1 ,
1 < . 2 < 1 .

161
4.3
1 W ( ) , .
,
W ( ) . 1
2 W ( ) , .
= lim
<

1 >
2 = .

( , ) = + < , 0 .
> 0 , ,
+ 1 , . = . ,
= , 2 . ,
= + 1 . = 1 + , 0 ,
= 1 + + 1 , = 1 + , , .
, + 1, + 2, + ,
2 + 1, 2 + 2, , 2 + , ...

, , , , ,

1

162

2
+ , 0
3 , , < , , < <

4 <
.
< 9 4.2.
.
.
, .
, < ,
= W ( ) , W ( ) , .
. ,
.

5
,
.
.
1 = { + 1/ } =

1 , + 1 , <
, < + 1 ,
.

163

6 ,
,
, , = W ( )
< ,
. W ( ) , . W ( ) = ,
. W ( ) ,
W ( ) . W ( ) = ,
W ( ) , W ( ) . , W ( ) < ,
, , W ( ) .
W ( ) , < < , W ( ) , .
W ( ) , W ( ) , .

i , i I , , W ( ) = W ( i ) .
i I

7 .
.

, < , .
1897 Cesare Burali-Forti (1861-1931) 2 , Cantor,
Hilbert.
, . .
3 .
< .
Una questione sui numeri transfinite, Rendiconti del circolo Mathematico di Palermo, Vol.
11, Number 1, . 154-164.

164
= { x / x W ( ) ( < x)} ,
, 5.
,

, 1 ( )

, , ,
, .
lim = sup = .
1. lim(1, 2,3, 4,...) =
2. lim(2,4,8,16,) =
3. lim( 1, 2,..., n,...) = 2

8
, +
lim ( + ) = +
<

+ ,
W ( + ) , . .
+ W ( + ) < ,
+ < + < , < . < = + , > 0 ,
+ < + < , < < ,
W ( ) , .

= { + / < } , < , + < + .
+ < < , < ,
= + , > 0 , < < .

165
+ < + < = lim ,
<

, + + , + ,
lim( + ) = + lim .
<

<

9
1,
lim ( ) =
<

= 1 ,
= , > 1 .
, W ( ) , ,
< < . 1 < < , , = + W ( ) .
= 0 , = < , < , .
= 0 , <
< , < < ,
, .
= + < + , > 0 , < ( + 1)
< , < + 1 < , + 1 . =, < + 1 ,
, < ,
< < + = , < , .

= { / < } . < , < . <
< . 1 < <
= + W ( ) , < + < + ,
< ( + 1) , < + 1 <
+ 1 . = ,

166
, < + 1 , , , ,
lim( ) = lim
<

<

4.4

1 ( , )

1. 0 .
2. , x ,
x .

, ,
, 1 . 1 0 , 0 ,
1 , , 1
, , (2), 1 , .

2 ( , ) 0 , 1 2
,
.
, 1
, .
,
1 . 0 . x , x , .
x , 1 1 = x 1 x ,
1 , , x .
1 2 , .
x 1 , x , x x , .

167

3 ( , ) p ( x )
, p ( x ) ,

x0 p ( x )
x0 .
p ( x )
.
x1 p ( x1 ) ,
1 x p ( x ) ,
1 . 1
x0 . x0 ,
, x0 . ,
1 p ( x ) , ,
, p( x0 ) , . p ( x ) x .

4 ( ) p ( x )
. p ( ) p ( ) (
> ) p ( ) ,
,
.
> .
,
< . .
,
p ( x ) , ,
. ,

, .
, p ( )

168

,

> } , 0 , p ( x )
= { /
x 0 , x , x = p ( + 1) p ( ) .
,
,
.
a ( n) , n . a n , n . a1 = a a n , a n +1 = a n a .
1
a ( ) , , n
n ,
.
1 , W ( )
,

<

1) 1 2 n , n
2)
< ,

<

-
= 1
<

< 1

= lim

<
<
<

<

169

= lim ! = lim(2, 6, 24,...) =

<

<

,

2 ,

n , n .
<
, = 1
lim

, = < = lim
<

1. 2 = lim 2 = lim(2,4,8,) =

2 = 3 = 4 =
2.

=
= lim = lim(, , 3 ,) 3

3 > 1 , = +

. = 0 .
.
, = 1 .
1 = + 1 ,
= ( 1 ) = ( 1 ) = + 1 = +
, = lim ,
<

lim( + )

= lim = lim( ) = lim + =

<

<

<

<

1 = 1

170
+ lim

= < = +
, .

4 > 1 ,
( ) =

. = 0
.
, ( ) 1 = ( 1) ,
( ) = ( ) 1 = ( 1) = ( 1) + =
( ) = , < .
lim( )

( ) = lim( ) = lim = <

<

<

lim
<

, 2 .

5 > 1 > 0
>1
< , 1 > 1 , 1 1 ,
> 1 .
> 1 , < , = lim
<

< , > 1 . 2 .

6 > 1 ,
.
, .
7 > 1 ,
> >

171
( ) > , = + > 0
> + > > 1 > 1 , .
() = , = , . < , < ,
.
1.

( ) = , . :
2 22 ( 2) 2 = (2 ) 2 = 2 2
2. , > 1

. :

2 = lim 2 = lim(2, 4,8,...) = ,

<

2 = = 0

2 = 20 = c
3. Cantor ,
= , ( mumbers)

0 = lim(1, , , , ,...) ,

= lim( , , ,...) =0
0

4. :
. 2 = = = 0 0 = 0
. 2
= = = 0 = 0
= 0

172

1. 0 1 ,
2 , 3 ,..., n , 1 , 2 ,..., n ,

n < n 1 < < 2 < 1

0 = 1 1 + 2 ,1 = 2 2 + 3 ,..., n 1 = n n ( )
2. > 1 1 < ,
1 ,
. n
. 1 , 2 ,..., n

> 1 > 2 >

> n

. 1 , 2 ,..., n

0 i < i = 1, 2,..., n

= 1 + 2 +
1

+ n n .

( , = ,
)
3. ,
1) + = 2) + = 3) = 4) = 5) + =
6) =
4. n, 0 ,1 ,..., n ,

n +1 > n n +

+ 1 + 0 .

5. ,
) + 1 = 1 + <
) + = + = n, n
) = = n , n
2
6. , ( + ) =

7. n ,

173

+ n,
,

( + n ) =

8. , n ,

( n )

= n

9. n ,

<

2 n 1

10. n, ,

( + n )

= + 1 n + 2 n +

+ n + n

11. , 1 + 2 = 3
12. 0 , 2 = .
13. , + 1 = + ,
, .
14. , < , + =
15. , ,

) < < <
) 1 < =

) = , .
16.
.
17. ,
) + = , < .

174

) = , 1 < .

) = , 2 < .
18. = , .
19. > ,
) =
) = , > .
20. ( ) =

1 <

( ), ( + 1), ( 2), ( 2 )
4.5
1 ,
: W ( ) W ( ) ,
< < ( ) < ( ) -.
- .
1. 1 : W ( ) W ( 2 ) 1 (n) = n , n W ( ) -
2. 2 : W ( ) W ( 2) 2 (n) = + n , n W ( )
,
.

1 , , = lim ( ) .
<

2 , < , (cofinal)
, = lim ( ) .
<

175

1. 2 . ( n) = n, n <

2
lim (n) =
n <

2. , > 2 .
(n) = 1 n, n <

( n) =
lim

n<

3. . (n) = n , n <

lim (n) =

n <

2 , > ,

1.
2. W ( ) =
W ( ) .

=
: W ( )
, < ( ) .
4.1, 4 ( Zermelo)
( ) : W ( ) .
W ( ) n <
n < < , ( ) < , lim ( ) = .
<

( )

( ) = , = { ( ), < } lim

<

W ( ) , 1 1 <
( ) 1 < .

176

( )
lim

<

< , .

3 ,

.

: ,
<

( ) = ( ) .
lim

<

< , 1 = , n +1 = ( n )

= lim n , = ( ) .
n <

177
4.6 Zorn

,
,
.
BolzanoWeirstrass,
. Cantor-Bernstein.
Zorn 4
, .
, , ,
. 1935 Max
Zorn, Kuratowski (1922) 5 ,
. Zorn-Kuratowski.

1 ( Zorn)
, ,
, .
f :
x f ( x ) x = f ( x ) x f i , .

Max Zorn (1906-1993) .

, .
.
1941 .
4

Casimir kuratovski, Une mthode dlimimation des nombres tsanfinis des raisonnements mathmatiques, Fumdamenta Mathematica 3(1922), . 76-108.
5

178
1 (, ) .
: 6 , x, y x y .

{ x, y}

.
2 (, ) , .
: , f : f ( x ) = x , x x
(
) f ( x ) x .
f : x f ( x ) x , x ,
f . f :
f . p ,
r p C
, = Cr
()
p r .
() x {r}
f ( x ) .
W ( p ) p
r C .
( )
3 W ( p )
4 y Cr y p ,

= { x / x Cr x y} { y} C .

179
.
5 Cr W ( p )
: x Cr x = p ( 4)
x C , x W ( p )
6 x W ( p ) , f ( x ) W ( p )
: x = p , f ( p ) p ,

{ p, f ( p)} C , f ( p ) W ( p ) . x p , x C . f ( x ) = x ,
f ( x ) W ( p ) . f ( x ) x ,

= C ( p, x) { f ( x)}

C , f ( x ) W ( p ) .
7 r , s W ( p ) r s , r s s Cr .
: r s .
S = C ( p, r ) C ( p, s ) . S , p S .
S C ( p, r ) , S , x .
r = x x C ( p, s ) x s
x = s . r = x , r s r = s ,
. r x . s x . x Cr {r} x Cs {s} , f ( x) Cr f ( x) Cs ,
f ( x) S , x f ( x ) , x
S . s = x , x S , s Cr
8 r W ( p ) ,
Cr = {x / x W ( p ) x r} {r}
: = { x / x W ( p) x r} {r} .
x C ( p, r ) x . x , x = r x C ( p, r ) .
x r x r , 7
x C ( p, r ) .
9 W ( p ) .
: W ( p ) r .
= Cr Cr , r , , .

180
. ,
Cr , ( 7) r , ,
, W ( p ) .
10 W ( p ) sup , sup W ( p ) = m ,
m W ( p )
: W ( p )
. , , W ( p ) .
W ( p ) . V = W ( p) {m} V

C .
() V p
m .
() z V z m , z W ( p ) , W ( p )
z , r W ( p ) , z C ( p, r ) z r , f ( z ) = r . V = C ( p, m) ,
m W ( p ) , .
11 sup W ( p ) = m , W ( p ) = Cm
: 5 Cm W ( p ) (1)
x W ( p ) , x = m x p , ( 8) x Cm ,
W ( p) Cm (2). (1) (2) W ( p ) = Cm .
12 (, ) ,
supremum,
f : m , f ( m ) = m .
: f , W ( p ) ,
m W ( p ) .
f ( m) W ( p )
m f ( m) , m = f ( m ) .
1 (, )
, sup ,
.
: ,
, .

181
S ( ) , ,
. U = {S ( ), } -

r : U S ( ) r ( S ( )) = s S ( )

f : f ( ) = s , -

, ( 12) m , f (m) = m = sm ,
. .
(, ) . ,

. Q

: , Q
.

1 (Q , ) .
2 S (Q , ) , W = u
uS

(, )
W ,
u S u . u
. ,
. v S V . u v
v u.
v u u , u ,
u .
u v , u u ,
, . u u , , . W
3 W S 2
W = sup S .
u w u S . w1
u w1 u S .

182
u

w1 , u S u w1 , u S ,

u w , W w , W = w
1

W w1 .

uS

w1 W , u ,
u S u w1 u S u ( ) ,
( )

u =W

w1 , -

uS

W = w1 W w1 , W = sup S
4 ( Hausdorff :
Hausdorff 7 :
( )
(Q , ) .
, 2 3
(Q , ) sup , (Q , ) sup , 1
.
2 (, ) ,

.
w 17 a
w . a w , v = w {a}
(Q , ) w v , . a w , a = sup w .
a , b , a , b w ( b w , v1 = w {b}
Q w v1 , , ) , a = sup W .
Zorn
:
1 .
,
,
2 .
7

F. Hausdorff 1914

183
2 .
x, y ,
{ x, y} , x .

z , y , { x, y, z}
{ x, y}
.

{ x, y, z} ,

1 F (finite character),
A F A
F

1. F = P ( )
2. A , A .

2 F
B F ( ),
F .
B

{ x1 , x2 ,..., xn }

B1 , B2 ,..., Bn B ,

x1 B1 , x2 B2 ,..., xn Bn . B
Bi i {1, 2,..., n} , Bk Bi {1, 2,..., n} ,

{ x1 , x2 ,..., xn } Bi , { x1 , x2 ,..., xn } F , F .
B

3 ( Tukey) .
F . B
F F
B

184
( 2) B , F
, ( Zorn) F . 8

4 Hausdorff
Tukey.
Tukey,
.

5 Zorn .

. ,
, . X F , ( X )* = ( X ) {} X ,
f ( A) A , f F A D ( f ) .
F
:
f
g D ( f ) D ( g ) f ( A) = g ( A) A D ( f ) . F ( F , )
F
( )
G ( F , ) .

G = { gi , i I } F , g F

D( g ) = D( gi ) g ( A) = gi ( A) , A D( gi ) .
iI

gi g gi G .
F , f .
F A ( X )*
A D ( ) . A 1 ( X )* , A 1 D( f ) .
f1 F , f1 ( B) = f ( B) B D ( f )
John Wilder Tukey (1915-2000) ,

185
f1 ( A1 ) = a A1 . f

f1 , .

Zorn

Zorn Tukey Hausdorff

6 ( Cantor- Zermelo 9
)
( ,
) .
, W ( ) ,
f (0) = r ( ) , f (1) = r ( f (0)) f ( )
< , f ( ) = r ( f ( W ( ))) , r
f 1-1 , ,
, < , f ( ) f ( W ( )) .
f ( ) f ( W ( )) , f ( ) f ( ) .

Cantor-Zermelo, Cantor
, , Zermelo
1904 ( Zermelo [1904]) ,
, .
Zermelo, E.
Schmidt, . 1908
Zermelo ( [1908] Zermelo)

186
1 : W ( ) , f ( W ( )) = ,
, , :
f (1 ) = = f ( 2 ) 1 < 2 ,
, W ( ) (
f ).
2 : W ( ) , f ( W ( )) ,
f ( W ( )) = .
:
2 : , ,

2 : ,
.
2, ,
W ( ) .
. ,
,
= ( ) {} ,

. , ,
, .
, :
< . (, ) ,
, ( = {i , i I } , -

i < i I
.), , Zorn , . +1 , .

7
.

187
.
f : ( ) , { x} x
, ,
.
, , .

A r A , r
. r *
r r* .
U A , r . A
,
U , A . , V
U , , ,
r ,

r V

V U . Zorn, U , r * . r * .
, a, b A , (a, b) r *
(b, a ) r * .
R = r * {(a, b)} {(a, x) / x A (b, x) r *}

{(b, x) / x A (a, x) r }
*

R r * R , .

2 A (Rationally independent) x1 , x2 ,..., xn A

r1 , r2 ,..., rn r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn = 0 r1 = r2 =

= rn = 0 . 1, 2 ,

1, 2, 3 .

188
3 A
Hamel (Hamel 10 bases),
x x = r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn ,
x1 , x2 ,..., xn A r1 , r2 ,..., rn

8 11 Hamel

1, 2 .
, .
, U i , i I ,
U = U i ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn U , i I
i I

x1 , x2 ,..., xn U i , r1 , r2 ,..., rn
r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn = 0 r1 = r2 = = rn = 0 ), . Zorn , V . x * ,
x1 , x2 ,..., xn V r1 , r2 ,..., rn ,

x = r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn , V { x} , . x .
x = r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn ,

10 Georg Hamel 1877 Dren

Schwarz, Fuchs, Frobenius
Planck. 1900 Gttingen, F.
Klein D. Hilbert.
Brn 1905.
,
. 1935 . Hamel,
, ,
. 1954 Landhut .
11 Hamel .

189
0 = ( r1 r1 ) x1 + (r2 r2) x2 +

+ (rn rn) xn ,

r1 = r1, r2 = r2 ,..., rn = rn . .

9 B
, Hamel A .
B , B Hamel. U , B .

1. f :
f ( x + y ) = f ( x ) + f ( y ) , x, y

ui , i I Hamel a = ui .
, x =

fa :

r u
j J

x =

r u
j J

, J I i J , f ( x ) = 0

, J I i J , f ( x) = ri . f a -

f a ( ) . Hamel ( B , B = n
*

= B

= n0 = 0 , ), f a

.
2. f :
f ( x + y ) = f ( x ) f ( y ) , x, y .

190
x0

, f ( x0 ) = 0 , f ( x ) = 0 ,

, f ( x ) 0 , x

x
>0,
2

. f ( x ) = f 2

x .
, g ( x + y ) = g ( x ) + g ( y ) , x .
f ( x) = e g ( x )
3. f ( x ) = x, x ,
.
a , b , Hamel,

ui , i I . a = ui , g , h
g ( x) = ri xi , h( x) =

j J {i}

rj x j , x = rj u j , J I
j J

i J g ( x ) = 0, h( x ) = x , x = rj u j , J I i J .
j J

f ( x ) = g ( x ) + h( x ), g ( x + b ) = g ( x ) h( x + a ) = h( x ) ,
x
4. , .
U Hamel. x > 0 x = r1 x1 + r2 x2 + + rn xn ,

x1 , x2 ,..., xn U r1 , r2 ,..., rn

, ,

x1 = min { x1 , x2 ,..., xn } .
A x , r1 > 0 B

x , r1 < 0 .

191
5.1

. 1
. = =
. <
( < 2 = 2 = 0 )
. < <
. = .
, ,
, ,

1 m, m 0 ,
( m ) .

,
. Cantor
.
Zahl=. Cantor
. ,
Cantor , ( (0 ) )
(0 ) = { , + 1, + 2,..., 2,..., 3,..., 2 , 2 + 1,...}

. ( ) . (m) = ( ) = m .

9 3.5

= W ( )

192

1 , : < <
.

2 (u ) , (v)
(u ) (v ) (u ) (v ) =

( ) (u ) (v ) . (u ) (v ) , = u = v ,
u = v , (u ) = (v ) , .
( ) (u ) = (v ) , (u ) (v ) = (u ) , .
( m )
< , .
2 ( m ) , .

3 m .
( m ) ,
, , + 1 = , + 1 = , + 1 = . , + 1 = , = ,
(m) < ,
(m) .

4 ( m) ( n) , m > n >

= , = , = m, = n

193
( ) , = , = ,
m = n , . < ,

, , , , m n , .
() < , , ,
, , n m . =
( m ) ,
.

5 .

. . , . ,
.

, ,
, .

6 ,


g : . S (V , W , f )
V , W = g ( V ) f W V
V . S ( 1 , 1 , g1 ) , 1
1 = g ( 1 )
g1
1 1 1 , , . S
(V1 , W1 , f1 ) (V2 , W2 , f 2 ) , V1 V2 , W1 W2

194
f 2 ( x) = f1 ( x) x V1 W1 .
( S , ) ,

2 = 1 {a} , 2 = g ( 1 ) { g (a)} a 1 ,

g (a ) 1 g 2 2 2
2 , ( , ), ( 1 , 1 , g1 ) ( 2 , 2 , g 2 ) .

S1 = { (Vi ,Wi , fi ), i I } S .
M = Vi , N = Wi , M N = (Vi Wi ) .
iI

iI

iI

h : M N M h( x) = fi ( x) x Vi Wi x V j W j ,
(Vi , Wi , f i )

(V j , W j , f j ) (V j , W j , f j )

(Vi , Wi , f i ) .

x Vi Wi ,
fi ( x) = f j ( x) .
h ,
(Vk , Wk , f k ) ( M , N , h) k I , S1 ,
( M , N , h) . , Zorn, ( S , ) ,
( , , ) . .
.
( = ( ) ), . , 1 .
g ( 1 ) = 1 . 1 1
,
1: 1 1 1 . 2 = 1 , 2 = 1
t : 2 2 2 t ( x ) = ( x ), x t ( x) = 1( x) , x 1 . t
, ( , , ) ( 2 , 2 , 2 ) , , ( , , ) S , .
, . = ,
= , .

195

7 ,
+ =
( 2)
, 0 + =
> 0 , .

8 , ,
< , + = .
< , + < + ,
+ + = , + = .

9 ( m ) m +
(m + ) ,
(m) =
( m ) ,
W ( ) + ( m) = W ( ) , + (m) = ,

m + (m) = , = max {m, ( m) }

( m ) , ,
(m + ) , , .

10
.
. ,
.
.

0 .

196
,

.
,
.
, .
+

= , .
10

11 .
3 m m 0 :
1. ( m) = { < m}
2. ( m) = { m}
(m) = (m) (m) = (m + )

1 (1) (m)
(2) (m)
(1) ( m) < ,

< m , ( m) . ,
( m ) = W ( ) , (m) = W ( ) = . . 1 < , 1 . = ,
, 1 (m) , ( m) , W ( ) , ,
1 < , .
(2) (m) = (m + )

2 (m) = , = m .

197
< m ( m) ,
W ( ) , .
> m 1 1 = m , 1 < ,
1 < , 1 W ( ) = (m) , 1 < m , m < m , .
= m .

3 mi , i I ,

(m )
i

iI

m = sup mi ( m) , < m ,
iI

i I < mi , (mi ) , (m) (mi ) (1)

iI

(mi ) (m) i I ,

(m ) (m) (2).
i

iI

(1) (2) (m) = (mi ) ,

iI

( ) = { < } ,

(index) ( ) . i ( ) , i ( ) = .
i ( ) = 0 , = 0 .

12 1 , 2 , 1 < 2
i (1 ) < i (2 ) .
( ) (1 ) (2 ) .

198
( ) 1 2 , i (1 ) i (2 ) .

13

, = + 1
, i ( ) = . = ( ) W ( ) = ( ) = ( ) ( ) ,

( ) = ( ) { } , ( ) = + 1 = , , .

14

:
. n ,
n < , 13.
n , n < ( n ) = (m) , m = sup n .
n <

n <

( 1) ( m ) = W ( ) , .
n < , n < . 1

1 < , 1 (m) , n < 1 ( n ) ,

1 = n , n1 n < . ( ) = {n , n 0 } , i ( ) = .

.
< .
1

, <

( ) = (m) , m = sup

<

<

( m) = W ( ) ,

199
i ( ) = . 2 ,

= sup { , < }

15 ,
= .
16
( ) W ( ) , ( ) W ( ) ,

.
5 , ,
cf ( ) = .

(regular).
, ,
, .
cf ( ) = . (sigular).

1. cf ( ) =
2. cf ( ) = , lim n =
n <

3. cf ( 2 ) = , lim n = 2
n <

= sup
<

200
4. cf ( ) = , lim n =
n <

17 cf (cf ( )) = cf ( )
3 4.5
6 m ,
m = , ( m )
.

18
< <
19 i , i I ,

sup ,
i

iI

sup
i

iI

iI

.
7 ,
< +1 .

20 { , }
+1 > ,
sup =
, ,
. < .
< , , ,

201

lim = .

21 { , }
, sup = , .
. <

< lim < ,

lim

, 0 lim 0 ,

0 lim = 0 , lim = 0 , lim (0 ) .

2
0

= 0 , , . = 0 ,
2

( )
.
2

, , , , 0 ,
.

22 , < , + =
7.

202

23 1 , 2 ,..., ,
1 + 2 +

+ = max 1 , 2 ,

24 .

<

( ) ,
W ( ) =

( ( ))
<

= = W ( ) =

( ) = +
0

<

<

+1

0 +1 = 1 = +1 (1)
<

(1) = .

(1) = ,
<

<

+1

=
<

0 +1 +2 +
24

<

W ( )

+ +

203

, , ,
, .

- , ,
.
- , .

< , = ( ) = + = , .
.

25 , .
V (, g ) , , g . V , .
( 0 0 = 0 ),
g : , (, g ) V . V
(1 , g1 ) (2 , g 2 ) , 1 2 g 2 ( x) = g1 ( x)
x 1 1 . (V , )
. 1 1
g1 : 1 1 1 ,
g 2 : 1 1 1 g 2 (( , )) = g (( , )) ( , )
g 2 (( , )) = g1 (( , )) . g 2
, (1 , g 2 ) V
(, g ) (1 , g 2 ) , .
S = {(i , gi ) / i I }

(V , ) = i
iI

g : ,
) a, b i , g ((a, b)) = g i (( a, b)) .

204

) a i b j i j , i j

g ((a, b)) = g j ((a, b)) g ((b, a )) = g j ((b, a )) .

(, g ) (V , ) S .
V ( Zorn) , ( , h) .
.
. , , .
( ) ( ) = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
,
, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
, ( ) ( ) ,
r : ( ) ( ) .
t : .
: ( ) ( ) ,
((a, b)) = h(( a, b)) a, b
(( a, b)) = r (( a, b)) ( a, b) ( a, b)
(( a, b)) = t (a, b) ( a, b)
, ( , ) V
( , h) ( , ) , , ( , h) .
.

26
=
+ = .

27 , < , =
1 < < , 2 = ,
= .

28 i , i I ,
I ,

205

iI

= max { I ,sup { i / i I }}

i sup i ,
iI

iI

sup
iI

iI

iI

sup

I , (1)

i 1 , i I ,
i

iI

iI

iI

I sup i (1)

iI

I (2).

1 ,
iI

iI

I (3). (2) (3) .

. I < sup i , (1)

iI

sup

(4).

sup

(5). (4) (5) .

iI

iI

iI

iI

i , i I

iI

29 i , i I
I . i
i I ,

iI

i i I ,

iI

I =

30 , cf ( +1 ) = +1 .
cf ( +1 ) = < +1 , .
< +1

206

< < ( ) < +1 <

( ) < +1 , W ( +1 )

W ( ( )) (1)

<

( ) < +1 , W ( ( )) < +1 , W ( ( )) .
(1) W ( +1 )
+1

W ( ( )) ,

<

W ( ( )) = max , sup W ( ( ) max { , } = ,

<

<

.
, (weakly inaccessible)
(inaccessible)

< 2 < .

.

31 i , i I I =

sup

= ,

iI

iI

i , i I

,
iI

iI

iI

(1). I I I -

f : I I I .

j = f ( I { j}), j I . j , j I -

I j = , j I , (
)

= ( ) ,
iI

jI

i j

i j

i j

 ( ) =
jI

i j

207

(2). (1) (2) -

jI

32 I
i < i I ,

iI

= I =

( ) 28
( ) :
+ 1 = ,
i i I , sup i < . 31

iI

iI

= max I ,sup i =
iI

33
cf ( ) = < , I
i < i I , I =

iI

= .

cf ( ) = <

lim ( ) = ,
<

sup ( ) = .

<

I = { ( ), < } . 31

iI

= max I ,sup i = .
iI

208

34

, <

= , cf (

<

) = .

cf ( ) = < ,
supremum < , W ( ) < ,

= max { W ( ) ,sup } < , .

<

cf ( ) = < < , + 1 , > ,

< , > = , > , .

<

.

i , i I

I = , i < i I

iI

= .

1. , , > 1
. < <

209

. < <
2. ,

= 2

( )

( )

2 < < 2 , 2

= 2 , = 2

=2

3.

1. +1 = +1 ( Hausdorff )

2. + n = + n , n
Hausdorff)

1 : + 1 . +1 = 2

) +1 < 2

=2

= (

= +1 = 2

+1 2

=2

= +1

+1

2 : < + 1 . +1 a +b 1 +1 = a +b 1 = +1 (1)
W ( )

W ( +1 )

= W ( +1 )

W ( )

W ( )

= +1 . = W ( +1 )

+1 . cf +1 = +1 , , < +1 ,
lim ( ) = ,

<

+1 =

<

<

+1

W ( )

W ( )

W ( )

W ( )

+1

<

W ( )

W ( )

+1 (2).

+1

(1) (2) .
.

4. n , n = 2 n (
Bernstein).
Hausdorff, = 0 .

210
5. A , A f : A A .
A

A 2 .
:
A A > 1 , f A ,

f ( x ) x , x A .
- A , A = {a1 , a2 ,..., an } ,
f (ak ) = ak +1 , k = 1, 2,..., n 1 f (an ) = a1 .

- A , A = {a1 , a2 ,..., an ,...} , -

f (a2 k 1 ) = f (a2 k ) f (a2 k ) = f ( a2 k +1 ) , k

- A , B, C
A . B C A ,
g : B C A .

B1 = g ( B) C1 = g (C ) . B1 , C1 . B1 C1
h : B1 C1 .

h( x), x B1

f ( x) =
h 1 ( x), x C

1

B A ,

B A A , B A

( )

=2

= 2 A (1)

P( A) A . E P( A) f E E f E ( x) x ,

x E . g E A
f E ( x), x E

g E ( x) =

x A E
x,

 E1 , E2 P( A) E1 E2 , g E1 g E2 .
F : P( A) B F ( E ) = g E 1-1, 2
(1) (2) .

211

= P( A) B (2).

6. ,
. ,
. > ,
7. , , , = = , ,
.
8. , , , ,

9. , , , , , , ,
, , .
10. , , , = , = , ,
.
11. , , + = +

12. , , = <
13. , 2 < + <
14.
. 20 = 30 = = 0 0 = c
. 2c = 3c =

= 0c = c = c c

15.

.

212
16.

0 1 2

= 0

17.
. 1 + 2 + 3 +

= 0 (

. 1 2 3 =
. 1 + 2 + 3 + = 0
V. 1 2 3

= ( > 1 )

18. = 2 = 2 .
19. m, n, p, q ,

1. m < n p < q , m + p < n + q

2. m < n p < q , m p < n q
3. m + p < n + q , m < n p < q
4. m p < n q , m < n p < q
20.
.
21. .
22. = ,

, 0

23. 2

= 2 ,

24.
0 .
25. cn c

213
c c1 + c2 +

+ cn n , c cn
n =1

26. , , .
27. = m 0 n m ,

n ( ) = { , = n} m n

28. Hamel

29. Hamel 2c

214
6.1 Georg Cantor
Cantor ,
,
. , ,


.

Frege, Russell Gdel. O
Cantor . Cantor .
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor
3 1845. , Georg Waltermar,
, ,
. Cantor,
.
,
.
. 1862

. ,
,
. Cantor K. Weierstrass (1815-1879), E.
ummer (1810-1893) L. Kronecker (1823-1891). 1866
1 1867.
1869
.
E. Heine (18211881),
Heine
1

Gauss

ax + by + cz = 0 , a,b,c .
2

215
, L.
Dilichlet (1805-1895) B. Riemann (1826-1866),
1869. 1870 1872
,
,
.
.
;
, .
. , . ,
2
3 ..., ,
.
1
1
...
2
3
1
, .
.
1 1
{, 2,3,...} , , ,...
2 3

( ) .
Cantor, .
Cantor : , . ,
.
, -

216
- ,
. 2
(1564 -1642)
, ,
.
. , .
Gauss (1777- 1855) Cauchy (1789-1857)
horror infiniti ( ). Gauss 1831 :

. .
,
()
3 .
Bolzano 4

. . 172
. [2000] 508.
4 Bernard Bolzano 1781 . 1796 , , . 1800
. 1805
1806
. Bolzano
.
, 1819 . .
. .
.
- , Bolzano .
Weirstrass. 1881
Otto Stolz. 1848.
2
3

217
Paradoxien des Unendrlichen, . f ( x ) = 2 x
[0, 2] [0,1] , .

.
Cantor .

,
, , , .
, ,
,
,
, 5

, 1874
Crelles Journal . 1873
1874 Cantor
.
,
,
, . ( )
,
1851 Liouville , . Cantor ,
,
. , , .
Cantor
.
5

.196

218
1874-1877 .

Cantor
:
.
1871 1874 .
Dedekind.
5 1874 Dedekind :
(
) ( )
;
, ,
. 6
,
Dedekind.
, 7

Crelles Journal 1877
Dedekind,
Kronecker.
1884 Cantor G. Mittag-Lefller (1846-1927)
: . .
,
. . A 8

The Mac Tutor History of Mathematics G. Cantor

8
6
7

219
1891

, Cantor.
( ).
1894, ,
1895 1897 Mathematische Annalen .

,

,
.
.

( ), D.Hilbert 9 (1862-1943)
David Hilbert 1862
1943 ,
. 1895
,
. , , , ,
.
. ,
,
Cantor. ,
Cantor ,
.
1900 2 , ,
23 .

. , Hermann Weyl, Emmy Noether, Edmund Landau, Paul Bernays .
:
;
; !!

220
. 1897 , C.Burali-Forti, .
1897 o Cantor 1
, W.Hurwitz(1904-1956) Cantor,
. J. Hadamard (1865-1963)
. H. Poincare (1854-1912) Cantor,
,
,
.
, 16 1899
Cantor.

.
,
.
6 1918 .
Hilbert

, ,
. ,
( )
10
Cantor
.
, , , .
Kronekcer 11 .
. [1979] .11
Leopold ronecker (1823-1891), ,
, 10

11

221
Cantor Kronecker.
Weirstrass Kronecker , ,
. Cantor

Kronecker,
,
.
Cantor, Kronecker .
, Cantor , .
Cantor
Dedekind.
.
6.2 .
Cantor, ,
.
,
,
.
,
.
(1840-50) Galois.
,
. , , Kummer. Kronekcer Cantor
. (Brower), - .
, .
Kronecker
.

222

,
. D.Hilbert : Cantor, ,
, .
, , Frege, Dedekind Cantor . , , , .
. , , . , , . , ,
. 12
( ) ;
1) Burali-Forti, . .
2) .
.
3) Cantor, .
, () , ( ) ,
.
4) B.Russell, 13
. Russell D. Hilbert 375
Bertrand Russell . 18 1872 . ,
,
, . , , Russell.

12
13

223
1901, Principles
of Mathematics, 1903.
,
, ,
. ,
, .
Russell, ,

, .
.
( ), . , ,
Russell, , ,
, Russell
, .
Russell .
1902, Frege 14

3000
. ,
, Alfred North Whitehead
1910 1913, Principia Mathematica. Nobel 1950.
2 1970.
14 Gottlob Frege, ,
1848 1925 -. .
( ).
,
:
.
1869
, Ph.D. , 1873.
1875 , 1896 .
,
, ,
Russell Peano. ,
, .

224
Grundgesetze der Aritmetik, Bertand Russell,

Frege 15 . Frege


, Russell
,
. :
16 Frege
, , , .
. Russell, . (V).
17 ,
...
, ,
.
Frege,
.

. .

. Hilbert:
, Zermelo Russell,
, . , Dedekind Frege Russell B. [1902] .124-125
Frege G. [1902] . 127-128
17 (V) Frege
.
15
16

225
. Dedekind

Frege, ,
, . ,
Cantor. ,
, , .
.
Brower,
Frege Russell
Hilbert.
,
.

.
6.3 .

B. Russell A. Whiteheand 18 Principia
Mathematica.
,
,
E. Zermelo 19 Russell
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947). ,
, , , ,
, .
19 Ernst Zermelo (1871-1953). , . Cantor .
, , . ( Max Planck ),
. 1902
.
,
18

226
E. Zermelo 1908
, 2000
,
. Zermelo
.
,

20 21 . Zermelo . 22
,
, ,
, , . , , , ,
. Russell ,

. Cantor,
, , . , , 1904. 1905
,
1908. (1922) Adolf Fraenkel Thoralf Sklem
Zermelo Zermelo-Fraenkel (ZF).
20 1920 A. Fraenkel
1925 von Neumann.
21 Von Neumann-Bernays-Gdel, Kripke
Platek, Morse-Kelley Willard van Orman Quine
New Foundations,
B.Russell.
22 E. Zermelo, [1908] 200.

227
.
, ,

.
, , ,
,
T Zermelo-Fraenkel,
, .
1. .
. ,
.
(A, B ), ((z )( z A z B ) A = B
.
( )
2.
.
.
(A)(y )(y A)
3.
,
.
(x, y )(z )((w)( w z w = x w = y ))

4.
, ,
.
(A)(B )((x )( x B (C )( x C C A))
5.

228
x , y

, {} , {, {}} ,... ,

y x , x y { y} ,
x .
(A)( A (B)( B A B { B} A))
19 , ,
,
. .
: , ( ) ,
.
, Zermelo

. 23

6.
,
.
(A)(Y )(Z )( Z Y Z A)
7.
X Y ,
X Y =
( X ) a(a X ) y ( y X z ( z y z X )
Russell .
8.
P ( x, y ) , ,
x y , P ( x, y )
. A B , -

23

. 30.

 y x A P ( x, y ) .

AB y ( y B ( x A ) P( x, y ) )

229

,
P A ,
B , A ,
P .
9.
i , i I , i
i I .
AC. .
Zermelo
,
Zermelo-Fraenkel

, ZF.
(ZF+AC ZFC).
ZF
.

,
.
:

=

230

x ,
{ x} . x y ,

{ x} { y} , ( )

{{ x} ,{ y}} , ( )

{ x, y} = { x} { y} ( )

{x,{ x, y}} = { x} { x, y} ( ).

x y ,

{ x, y} , { x, y} ( )

( x, y ) = { x, { x, y}} (( )) .
,
(( )) ( x, y ) x
y .
.
,
( ) , .
V. i , i I
i
iI

iI

,
I

i , iI
f (i ) i i
iI

i i i I .
iI

,
.

231
24 , . ,
R , ( , R )
. ( , R )
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f
xRy f ( x ) Sf ( y ) .
25 R, TR (Type Relational)
( , R ) ( TR ( A, R ) )
10.
( , R )
TR ( , R ) .
( , R ) (, S ) TR ( , R ) TR (, S )
= ( , R ) (, S )

V. W ( )
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)
J.V.Neumann 26 (1928)
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2.1,

. Kutatowski.
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. Russell
Whitehead
24

26

John von Neumann (1903-1957) ,

, . -

232
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J.V.Neumann ,
.
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27 : ,

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Zermelo Kurt Gdel 1931 ZF.
Kurt Gdel 28 ,
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. Zermelo [1908], . 200-201
Kurt Gdel ,
(1906) .
. .
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27
28

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H.Hahn, ( Gdel)
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: Consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum hypothesis with the axioms of set theory . Gdel
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1953 . , Kurt Gdel, ,
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Hilbert 30

.
.
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Principia Mathematica ,
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.

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.
,
,

, .

. [11] : . 596- 617.

Hilbert , .
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29
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0 c . ,
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. , , : ,
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33

(Continuum Hypothesis, CH). 20 = 1 ,
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. Bell, 441-442
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ZF, ,

ZF ,
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Waslaw Sierpinski (1882-1969),

20 .
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. 100 , , CH.

(General Continuum Hypothesis-GCH) ( 2 = +1 ) +1 , .

1.

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( = = )


. ( Sierpinski)
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4. :
< 2 < 2 .
5. :
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6.

, < cf ( )

= +1 , cf ( ) <

+1 ,

7. GCH,

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,
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Tychonoff, (Kelley, 1950).
Krein-Milman, (Bell-Fremlin, 1972). Lwenheim-Skolem-Tarski, Tarski . ,
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, .

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x S x = { y / x y} ,

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Neque enim leges intellectui aut rebus ad arbitrium nostrum, sed tanquam scribae fideles ab ipsius
naturae voce et prolatas excipimus et describimus
Veniet tempus, quo ista quae nunc latent, in lucem dies extrahat et longioris aevi diligentia
( I. Newton- Principia )
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