Frequency Response

BJT/MOSFET
Quiz No 1
Group B
Group A
If R
1
=R
2
=2k and C=1F
Find
z
&
p
.

z
= 1/CR
1
= 500 rad/sec

p
= 1/C(R
1
||R
2
) = 1000 rad/sec

z
= 1/CR
2
= 500 rad/sec

p
= 1/C(R
1
+R
2
) = 250 rad/sec
15-06-09
High-Pass Filter
Low Frequency Band
( )
2 1 2 1
1 2
1
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
1
1
||
) (
) (
R sCR R R
sCR R
sCR
R
R
R
sC
R R
R
s V
s V
i
o
+ +
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+
=
(

+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 1
2
|| 1
1
) (
) (
R R
R
k
s
s
k
R R sC
sCR
R R
R
s V
s V
p
z
i
o
e
e
Low-Pass Filter
( )
1 2
2 1
2
||
1
1
) (
) (
R R C
s
R R
R
s V
s V
i
o
+

+
=
1
2 1
2
1
1
1
||
1
||
) (
) (
p
i
o
s
k
sC
R R
sC
R
s V
s V
e
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
Low-Pass Filter
p
z
i
o
s
s
k
R R sC
sCR
R R
R
sC
R R
sC
R
s V
s V
s T
e
e
+
+
=
+ +
+
+
=
+ +
+
= =
1
1
) ( 1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
Find k k = V
o
(s)/V
i
(s) while C is short circuited

Z
while V
o
(s)=0 s = - 1/CR
2

p
while V
i
(s)=0 s = - 1/C(R
1
+R
2
)


Complete Analysis (Mid-band Frequency)
D C Analysis.

Suppress ac independent sources
External & Internal Capacitors be Open circuited
Determine DC operating Point I
C
/I
D
Calculate small signal model parameters g
m
, r
pi
, r
e

Mid-Band Analysis A
M
.

Suppress DC independent sources
External Capacitors be short circuited
Internal Capacitors be Open circuited
Replace BJT with small signal Model
Analyze the resulting circuit to find voltage gains
G
v
A
i
, input & output resistance
Complete Analysis (Low-F
L
, high Frequency F
H
)
Low Frequency Analysis F
L
.

Suppress DC independent sources
Internal Capacitors be Open circuited
Replace BJT with small signal Model
Keep the External Capacitors in the circuited
Analyze the resulting circuit to find R
eq
for each capacitor by
using Short Circuit Time Constant Method.

High Frequency Analysis F
H
.

Suppress DC independent sources
External Capacitors be Short circuited
Replace BJT with small signal Model
Keep the Internal Capacitors in the circuited
Analyze the resulting circuit to find R
eq
for each capacitor by
using Open Circuit Time Constant Method after using Miller
theorem.
Gain Function A(s)
A(s) = A
M
F
L
(s)F
H
(s)
F
L
(s) & F
H
(s) are gain function in low & high
frequency bands and are dependent on
frequency

At mid-band, the gain for

L
<< <<
H

A(s) = A
M
Gain Function A(s)
Mid-band gain is determined by analyzing amplifier
equivalent circuit with the assumption
Coupling and bypass capacitors are acting as a perfect short
circuit
Internal capacitors of the amplifier are acting as a perfect open
circuit

The low frequency function F
L
(s) is determined by
analyzing amplifier equivalent circuit
Including Coupling and bypass capacitor but assuming
Internal capacitors of the amplifier as a perfect open circuit


The High frequency function F
H
(s) is determined by
analyzing amplifier equivalent circuit
Including Internal capacitors of the amplifier but assuming
Coupling and bypass capacitor as a perfect short circuit
( )( )
( )( ) ( )
1 2 1
2 1
.......
.......
) (
p p p
z z
L
s
s
s s
s s
s F
e e e
e e
+
~
+ +
+ +
=

1
1
....... 1 1
....... 1 1
) (
1 2 1
2 1
|
.
|

\
|
+
~
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
p p p
z z
H
s s s
s s
s F
e e e
e e
Dominant-Pole Approximation

P1
>>
P2
,
P3
..
Z1
,
Z2

Dominant-Pole Approximation can be
made if the highest frequency pole is
separated from the nearest pole or zero by
at least two octave ( a factor of four)
Complete Analysis Amplifier
A
M
F
L
(s)F
H
(s)

DC Analysis Mid-band Analysis Low frequency Analysis High frequency Analysis
A
M
F
L
(s) F
H
(s)
Suppress Independent AC
sources
Suppress Independent DC
sources
Suppress Independent DC
sources
Suppress Independent DC
sources
Open Circuit all capacitors Suppress all capacitors Open Circuit Internal capacitors Short Circuit External capacitors
Calculate Node Voltages & I
C
Draw Small Signal Model Draw Low Frequency Model Draw High Frequency Model
Find out Mode of operation &
SSM parameters
Find out Gain, Input & output
Impedance
Using Short Circuit Time
Constant, Find out Dominant
pole Frequency
Using Open Circuit Time
Constant, Find out Dominant pole
Frequency
( )( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ...... 2 ...
.......
.......
) (
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2 1
2 1
+ + + + =
+
~
+ +
+ +
=
z z p p
L
p p p
z z
L
s
s
s s
s s
s F
e e e e e
e e e
e e
. ....
1 1
2 .........
1 1
1
) (
1
1
....... 1 1
....... 1 1
) (
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2 1
2 1
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
~
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
z z p p
H
p p p
z z
H
s
s s s
s s
s F
e e e e
e
e e e
e e
Normalized High frequency Response
Low Frequency Response

f
L(s)


Reading Material
Low Frequency Response

Microelectronics Sedra & Smith
Section 4.9 Ed 5
Section 5.9 Ed 5
Appendix E Ed5
Section 7.1 thru 7.3 Ed 4

Microelectronics Millman
Electric Cct Franco
Low Frequency Response
O =
O =
=
k r
r
o
X
100
50
100 |
DC analysis
External & Internal Capacitors open Circuit
DC analysis
mA
R
R
I
E
B
E
1
1
7 . 0 4
~
+
+

=
|
100 = |
( ) O = + =
O = =
~ =
k r r
I
V
r
A mV
I
V
g
e
E
T
e
E
T
m
5 . 2 1
25
/ 25
|
o
t
V R I V V
C C CC C
6 = =
V R I V V
B B BB B
4 ~ =
4 . 0 >
B C
V V Mode Active for Check
Mid-band (dc) Gain A
M
Suppress DC independent sources
External Capacitors be short circuited
Internal Capacitors be Open circuited
Replace BJT with small signal Model
Mid-band (dc) Gain A
M
( )
s in
in
x
L C o m
sig
o
R R
R
r r
r
R R r g
v
v
+

+
=
t
t
|| ||
sig
B
B
o
sig
o
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
=
t
t
V V
v
v
sig
o
/ 5 . 22 =
) ( ||
t
r r R R
x B in
+ =
+
-
v

v
B
R
in
Low Frequency Response : Equivalent Circuit
Suppress DC independent sources
Internal Capacitors be Open circuited
Replace BJT with small signal Model
Keep the External Capacitors in the circuited
Analyze the resulting circuit to find R
eq
for
each capacitor by using Short Circuit Time
Constant Method.
sec / 189
1
1 1
1
1 1 1
rad
R C
R C
C C
p
C C p
= =
=
e
t
( ) O = + + = k r r R R R
x B S eq C
3 . 5 ) ( ||
1 t
Find R
eq
for the C
C1
by inspection
Suppress the independent voltage source.
Short-Circuit Time Constant Analysis : C
C1
Keep C
C1
and short cct all other Capacitors
0
1
=
zCC
e
Short-Circuit Time Constant Analysis : C
C2

Keep C
C2
and short cct all other Capacitors
( ) O = + = k R R r R
L C o C
66 . 9 ||
2
sec / 103
1
2 2
2
2 2 2
rad
R C
R C
C C
p
C C p
= =
=
e
t
Find R
eq
for the C
C2
by inspection
Suppress the independent voltage source.
0
2
=
zCC
e
Short-Circuit Time Constant Analysis : C
E
(Zero Frequency )
sec / 4 . 4
1
0 1
1
1
||
3
Rad
R C
R sC
R sC
R C
E E
z
E E
E E
E E
= =
= +
+
= =
e
Short-Circuit Time Constant Analysis : C
E
Keep C
E
and short cct all other Capacitors
| |
O =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+ = 5 . 40
1
||
||
|
s B x
e E CE
R R r
r R R
sec / 2470
1
3
3
rad
R C
R C
CE CE
p
CE CE p
= =
=
e
t
Find R
eq
for the C
E
by inspection
Suppress the independent voltage source.
r
o
is neglected to simplify the analysis
I
e
/(+1)
I
e
(+1)/
I
e

Low frequency Response
( )
s in
in
x
L C o m M
R R
R
r r
r
R R r g A
+

+
=
t
t
|| ||
1 1
1
1
C C
p
R C
= e
0
1
=
zCC
e ( ) ) ( ||
1 t
r r R R R
x B S eq C
+ + =
E E
z
R C
1
3
= e
| |
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
1
||
||
|
t s B x
E CE
R R r r
R R
CE CE
p
R C
1
3
= e
( )
L C o C
R R r R + = ||
2
2 2
2
1
C C
p
R C
= e
0
2
=
zCC
e
( )( )
( )( ).......
.......
) ( 1 ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
2 1
p p
z z
L H L M
s s
s s
s F s F s F A s A
e e
e e
+ +
+ +
= = =
Low Frequency : Dominant Pole
( ) ( ) ( )
Hz rad
Hz rad
Hz rad
Hz Rad
Hz rad
Hz rad
p L
z
z z
p
p
p L
393 sec / 2470 Pole Dominanat Approx
394 sec / 2479 2470 103 189 Pole Dominant Exact
5 . 0 sec / 4 . 4
0
393 sec / 2470
15 sec / 103
30 sec / 189
3
2 2 2
3
2 1
3
2
1
= = = =
= = + + =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= = =
e e
e
e e
e
e
e e
Hz f frequency low
L
393
3
= ~
Low Frequency Response CE : C
E,
C
C1
& C
C2
Included
393 hZ
30 hZ
16 hZ
30dB
Designing of Coupling Capacitors
Design the coupling capacitors so that a dominant low
frequency pole at 100 Hz is obtained.
Design so that the contribution of the capacitors are in
the ratio of 8:1:1.
pF C
C
antpole do f
E
E
L
39 . 0
5 . 40
1
min 2
10
8
=

= = t
pF C
C
pole other f
c
C
L
30
10 3 . 5
1
2
10
1
1
3
1
=

= = t
L L L
f Hz f t e 2 100 = =
pF C
C
pole other f
c
C
L
5 . 16
10 66 . 9
1
2
10
1
2
3
2
=

= = t
O = k R
C
eqC
3 . 5
1
O = 5 . 40
E
C
eq
R O = k R
C
C
eq
66 . 9
2
Low Frequency Response : CC Configuration
=120
DC Anaysis : CC Configuration
=120
Mode Actieve V V
V R I V V V
mA
R
R
V V
I
B C
E E B C
B
E
BE CC
E
4 . 0
3 , 5
595 . 0
1
>
= = =
=
+
+

=
|
( ) O = + =
O = =
k r r
I
V
r
e
E
T
e
084 . 5 1
42
|
t
Mid-band Gain AM
Configuration is CC so T Model
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
V V
v
v
k R R r R R
R R
R
R R r
R R
R R
R
R R r
R R r g
v
v
R R
R
R R r
r R R g
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
sig
o
L E e B in
sig in
in
L E e
L E
sig in
in
L E e
L E e m
sig
o
sig in
in
L E e
e L E m
sig
i
i
be
be
o
sig
o
/ 922 . 0
4 . 147 || 1 ||
||
||
||
||
||
||
=
O = + + =
+

+
=
+

+
=
+

+
= =
|
o
o
Low Frequency Response : Cc1
(+1)IB
A B
| | O = + + + =
+ =
k R r R R R
R R R
L e B sig eq
in sig eq
4 . 157 ) ' )( 1 ( ||
1
1
|
3
1 1 1
1
10 4 . 157
1 1

= =
c eq c
p
C R C
e
IB
0
1
=
C
zC
e
IB
I
Low Frequency Response : Cc2
O =
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ + = k
R R
r R R R
sig B
e E L eq
72 . 5
) 1 (
||
||
2
|
3
2 2 2
2
10 72 . 5
1 1

= =
c eq c
p
C R C
e
I/+1
I /+1
0
2
=
C
zC
e
Designing of Coupling Capacitors
Design the coupling capacitors so that a dominant low
frequency pole at 10 Hz is obtained.
Design so that the contribution of the capacitors are in
the ratio of 10:1 and the total capacitance is minimized
F C
C
antpole do f
c
C
L
t 06 . 3
10 72 . 5
1
min 2
11
10
2
3
2
=

= =
F C
C
pole other f
c
C
L
t 11 . 1
10 42 . 157
1
2
11
1
1
3
1
=

= =
L L L
f Hz f t e 2 10 = =
O = k R
C
eqC
72 . 5
2
O = k R
C
eqC
4 . 157
1
Standard Capacitors
Design requires
CC1 = 1.11F & CC2 =3.06 F
Standard Capacitor Available commercially are
CC1 = 1.0F & CC2 =3.3 F
So selecting Standard capacitor
Dominant Low frequency pole @ fL=9.44 Hz
Low frequency response : Cc1 & Cc2
High Frequency Response

f
H(s)
Frequency Response : Exact Method
Frequency Response : Exact Method
Reference Chapter 6-6.3
High Frequency Response
Mid-band Gain
( )
'
L M
in sig
in
M
R g
R R
R
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
Open Circuit Time Constant for f
H
If poles and zeros can be determined easily so
calculate f
H


If not simple to find poles & zero then use open
circuit time constant method.


Consider one capacitor at a time while reducing
all other capacitance to zero (open circuit) and
signal source to zero
Open Circuit Time Constant for f
H
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1 1
2
1 1
1
z z p p
H
e e e e
e
Determine resistance R
ieq
seen by C
i


Repeat process for other capacitors

Compute b
1
by Summing individual time constant called open
circuit time constant
R
eq
for C
gs
Open Cct Time Constant


R
1
R
|| R R
0 V (ii)
circuit open is (i) as || R sees
gs
p1
gs gs
sig gs
sig
sig
gs
gs
in
gd in gs
C
C
R
C R C
=
=
=
=
e
t
To find
z1
,

Find the value of s when V
o(s)
= 0
when 1/sC
gs
= 0, Causes V
gs
=0 -- g
m
V
gs
= 0

so
z1
=
To find
p1
,
R
eq
for C
gd
Open Cct Time Constant

To find
z1
,

Find the value of s that causes V
o(s)
= 0

V
o(s)
will reduce to zero, if current equal
to g
m
V
gs
flow through C
gd
from left to
right, allowing no current thru R
L
.
( )
m
gd
z gs gd gs m C
s o
gs m gd s o gs C
g
C
s V sC V g I
V To have
V g sC V V I
gd
gd
1
1
0
2
) (
) (

= = = =
=
= =
e
g
m
V
gs
R
eq
for C
gd
circuit open C (i)
gs gd
C
There is one dependent current source so apply test current I
X
Find V
test
, & independent source to be suppressed
To find
p1
,
@ node G
|| where
'
sig in
'
X gs
R R R R I V = =
) (
1
) 2 (
' ' ' '
'
'
'
'
' '
'
'
'
b R C
R R g R R
I
V
R
R
R
R g I
R
V
R
V
R
R I
R I g I
R
V V
V g I
gd gd gd
L m L
X
X
L
m X
L
X
L
X
L
X
L X m X
L
X gs
gs m X
gd
=
+ + = =
(

+ + =
+ =

+
+ =
t
@ Node D

||
'
R I V
R R R
x gs
sig in
'
=
=
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
gd gd
p gd gd gd
L
L m L m
L
x
x
gd
L m
L
x L x m
L
x x
L gs m
L
x x
R C
R C
R R g R R R g R R
I
V
R
R R g R R I R R I g R R I V
R V g R R I V
1
1 ' ' '
' ' ' '
'
2
' ' ' '
' ' ' '
' '
= =
+ + + = + + = =
+ + = + + =
+ =
e t
gs m s
V g I I =
Frequency Response
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
p
z
p
M
sig
o
s
s
s
A
s V
s V
e
e
e
| |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
L sig in m L sig in gd
m
gd
sig in gs
L m
sig in
in
sig
o
R R R g R R R sC
g
C
s
R R sC
R g
R R
R
s V
s V
' || ' || 1
1
|| 1
1
'
) (
) (
m
gd
z
g
C
1
1
2

= e
( ) ( ) ( )
' '
2
|| ||
1
L sig in m
L
sig in gd
p
R R R g R R R C + +
= e
0
1
=
z
e
( )
in gs
R C || R
1
sig
p1
= e
100 k
420 k
1 pF
1 pF
3.73 K
g
m
= 4 mA/V
sec / 10 4
12
2
1
rad
C
g
gd
m
z
z
= =
=
e
e
kHz f
rad k
H
H
pgc pgc
H
3 . 128
2
sec / 806
1 1
1
2 2
= =
=
+
=
t
e
e e
e
V V R g
R R
R
V
V
V
V
Midband
L m
sig in
in
sig
o
sig
o
/ 8 . 10 A
A gain
'
M
M
= - -
+
= =
= =
sec M 37 . 12
1
sec 8 . 80 10 80 . 0 80 10 1
8 . 80 ||
3 12
Rad/
n X X X X
k R R R R C
gs
pgs
sig in gs gs gs gs
= =
= =
O = = =

t
e
t
| |
sec 862
1
sec 1160 10 16 . 1 10 1
6 12
' ' ' '
Rad/ k
n X
R R g R R C R C
gd
pgd
L m L gd gd gd gd
= =
= =
+ + = =

t
e
t
gd gs H
H
io
n
i
i H
R C
t t t
e
t
+
= =
=

=
1 1
0
Miller Theorem
Miller effect
The miller effect is the effective multiplication of a impedance
across a negative gain device.

Miller effect accounts for an increase in the equivalent input
capacitance of an inverting voltage amplifier due to amplification
of capacitance between the input and output terminals.

Although Miller effect normally refers to capacitance, any
impedance connected between the input and another node
exhibiting high gain can modify the amplifier input impedance via
the Miller effect.

This increase in input capacitance is given by

where A
v
is the gain of the amplifier and C is the feedback
capacitance

The Miller effect was named after John Milton Miller
When Miller published his work in 1920.
( )
v M
A C C = 1
Miller Effect
As most amplifiers are inverting amplifiers (i.e. Av < 0) the
effective capacitance at the input is larger.

For non-inverting amplifiers, the Miller effect results in a
negative capacitor at the input of the amplifier (compare
Negative impedance converter).

The circuit is also referred as a Capacitance Multiplier.

The capacitance on the output is often neglected since it sees
C(1 1 / A
v
) and amplifier outputs are typically low impedance.
However if the amplifier has a high impedance output, such as if
a gain stage is also the output stage, then this RC can have a
significant impact on the performance of the amplifier. This is
when pole splitting techniques are used.

Pole splitting causes the pole next in frequency (usually an
output pole) to move to a higher frequency. This pole movement
increases the stability of the amplifier and improves its step
response at the cost of decreased speed
( )
v M
A C C = 1
The Miller Effect
Consider the situation that an impedance is connected
between input and output of an amplifier







The same current flows from (out) the top input terminal if
an impedance is connected across the input
terminals
The same current flows to (in) the top output terminal if an
impedance is connected across the output terminal
This is know as Miller Effect
Two important notes to apply Miller Effect:
There should be a common terminal for input and output
The gain in the Miller Effect is the gain after connecting
feedback impedance
Miller in
Z
,
Miller out
Z
,
f
Z
Graphs from Prentice Hall
The Miller equivalent circuit.
K
Z
I
V
Z
Z
KV V
Z
KV
I
Z
V
I
K
Z
Z
I
V
Z
K
V
Z
KV V
I
Z
V
I
1
1
0 0
1
1
2
2
2
1 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1

= =

= =

= =
(

= = =
Miller Theorem
Miller theorem states that bridging impedance Z can be
replaced by two impedances: Z
1
connected between node 1 and
ground and Z
2
connected between node 2 and ground where
circuit equivalent the obtain to
function gain
V
V
k where
K
Z
Z
K
Z
Z


1
1
&
1
1
2
2 1
=

=
Miller equivalent circuit is valid only as long as the
conditions that existed in the network when k was
determined are not-changed

Miller theorem is very useful in determining the input
resistance and the gain of the amplifier.

Miller equivalent circuit cannot be used directly to
determine the output resistance of an amplifier. It is due
to the fact that test source is applied to the output
terminal and input signal is eliminated obviously it
changes the value of k.
Miller Theorem
Miller Theorem
Miller theorem
K=-100 V/V, Z = 1 M
Example
O =
+
=

= k
k
K
Z
Z 9 . 9
100 1
100
1
1
1 M ohm
V V
R Z
Z
V
V
V
V
V
V
sig sig
O
sig
O
/ 497 100
1
1 1
1
=
+
= - =
O =

= M
K
Z
Z 99 . 0
1
1
2
v
sig
o
A
R
R
R
R
V
V
1
2
1
2
1
1
+
+

=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
6 . 157
10 01 . 1 2
1
10 01 . 1 1
100
1
100
100
10 01 . 1
1
01 . 1
1
10 101
1
101
1
1
1
2 2
6
1
6
1
1
1 1
1
12
2
12
1
= =
=

=
+

=
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= - =
O

= =
O

= =
+
=

as R f
kHz f
s R sC
R Z
Z
V
V
V
V
V
V
s C s
Z
s C s K
sC
Z
eq z pz
p
sig
sig sig
O
sig
O
t
Z= Capacitor = 1 pF
Miller theorem
40 dB
157.6 Hz
OBSERVATIONS
The Miller replacement for
a negative feedback results
in a smaller resistance [by
a factor of (1-K)] at the
input.

The multiplication of a
feedback impedance by a
factor (1-k) is referred as
Miller Multiplication or
Miller Effect

Application of Miller Effect
If the voltage gain magnitude is large (say
larger than 10) compared to unity,


then
we can perform an approximate analysis by
assuming is equal to
find the gain including loading effects of
use the gain to find out
Thus, using Miller Effect, gain calculation and
frequency response characterization would be
much simpler
Miller out
Z
,
f
v
v f
Miller out
Z
A
A Z
Z ~

=
1
,
) (
, f Miller out
z Z
Miller in
Z
,
f
Z
If the feedback impedance is a capacitor ,then
the Miller capacitance reflected across the input
terminal is .
Therefore, connecting a capacitance from the
input to output is equivalent to connecting a
capacitance
Due to Miller effect, a small feedback
capacitance appears across the input terminals
as a much larger equivalent capacitance with a
large gain (e.g. ).
At high frequencies, this large capacitance has a
low impedance that tends to short out the input
signal
f
C
Application of Miller Effect
) 1 (
1
,
v f
Miller in
A C j
Z

=
e
f
C
) 1 ( v
f
A C
80 | | > v A
Analysis using Millers Theorem
Since C
gd
is small, the current through it will be much smaller
than that of the controlled source g
m
V
gs
.
Thus neglect the current through C
gd
in determining the output voltage V
o
.


OBSERVATIONS
C
gd
determines the high frequency response (
H
) of CE/CS.


To increase the upper 3-dB or cutoff frequency (
H
)

Reduce g
m
R
L
which reduces the mid-band gain
or
Reduce the source resistance which might not always be possible.
Alternatively
One can use circuit that do not suffer from the Miller Multiplication
use
Cascode configuration (CE-CB) wideband amplifier
( ) | |
sig L m gd gs
p
R R g V C
p
' ' 1
1
1
1
1
+ +
= =
t
e
'
L M
in sig
in
M
R g
R R
R
A - -
+
=


Intrinsic/Cut-off/ Unity-gain
Frequency



Gain-Bandwidth Product
Frequency
h
fe
Bode Plot

Bode Plot
Bode plot for h
fe
).
84
85
Cct for h
fe
(s) = I
c
/I
b
86
Unity Gain Frequency
T
p
z
M H M
b
c
s
s
s A s F s A
I
I
s hf e
e
e
+
+
= = =
1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
| = =
B
C
M
I
I
A
( )
t t
e
e
r C C s
s
s
s F
p
z
H
+ +
=
+
+
=
1
1
1
1
) (
( )
t t t
e
e
r C C
p
z
+
=
=
1
p T
e | e
0
=
) ( 2
t
t
t
e
C C
g
f
C C
g
m
T
m
T
+
=
+
=
87
The Cutoff Frequency
| |
t
t
t t t
sC sC
r
I
C C r I V
b
b
+ +
= =
1
|| ||
( )
t t t
V sC g V sC V g I
m m C
= =


Common Emitter short circuit gain, as a function of frequency in terms of Hybrid
components
@ Output node
@ Input node
88
CE short circuit current gain hfe


@ Frequency at which (lowest frequency)



o
low frequency value of
hfe has a single pole (STC) with 3dB
frequency

) (
1 1
t
t

t
t

e
e
C C j
r
C j g
sC sC
r
sC g
I
I
hfe
m m
b
c
+ +

=
+ +

= =
( )
t t
|
e e
r C C +
= =
1

( ) ( )
t t t t
t

|
e
r C C s r C C s
r g
hfe
C g
o m
m
+ +
=
+ +
=
>>
1 1

89
Unity Gain Bandwidth
BW @ which |hfe| drops to unity






Bode Plot |hfe|

T
e
|
|
e
e
|
|e e
+
=
=
1
o
T
hfe
) ( 2
t
t
t
e
C C
g
f
C C
g
m
T
m
T
+
=
+
=
Single Stage BJT Amplifier




Small Signal Output
Model Resistance
Pi Model


Include
T Model


Include
T Model



Don't
Include
T Model Dent
Include

Common Emitter (CE)

Common Collector (CC)

Common Emitter (CE)
with Emitter Resistance


Common Base (CB)
Common Emitter with Emitter
Resistance
L C C
sig B s
sig
sig B
B
i
R R R
R R R
v
R R
R
v
||
||
=
=
+
=
Small Signal Analysis
With Model
r
o
is Included
C
E
with R
E
To analyze this configuration, we first set down the complete nodal equations
Using the relationship , the nodal equations can be rewrite in a more homogeneous form:
Eliminating v
o
from the last two nodal equations we find that



and if we substitute this expression into the first nodal equation we find that



C
E
with R
E
C
E
with R
E
When but it reduces to
When this expression reduces to
Finally, substituting these two expressions into the second nodal equation
we find the following expression for the voltage gain: