By Rasikh Tariq

Thermodynamics

is the branch of natural science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.

Thermodynamics is entirely based upon following items : Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics First law of Thermodynamics Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

System:-

Surroundings:Any mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.

Boundary:The Real or Imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. Mathematically, the boundary has zero thickness.
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System

Closed System

Open System

Isolated System

A closed system consists of a fixed amount Of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.

In open systems, matter may flow in and out of the system boundaries. Human Body is a Open System

Characteristic of a system is called a Property. Common are:Pressure P Property Temperature T Volume V Mass m

Extensive

Intensive

Properties Independent of Depends upon Size-or the mass of the system. extent-of the system. Note This Specially E.g. Temperature, E.g. Total mass, total volume and momentum pressure and density

Density is defined as Mass per unit Volume.

The Reciprocal of Density is called Specific Volume.

Thermodynamics deals with Equilibrium States. The Word Equilibrium implies a state of balance
Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium

Mechanical Equilibrium

Phase Equilibrium

Chemical Equilibrium

If the Temperature is the same throughout the entire system

If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time

When the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level & stays there

If the Chemical Composition does not changes with time

A System will not be in Equilibrium unless all the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied
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Any two independent intensive thermodynamic properties are sufficient to describe the state of a system containing a single pure substance.

Any Change that a System undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a Process. And the series of states through which a system passes is called the Path of the Process

A Quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do no change any faster than those at the Other parts.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with a third body, they are also in Thermal Equilibrium with each other

Two Bodies are in Thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

By Replacing the third body with a thermometer, The Zeroth Law can be restated as

Zeroth Law serves as the basis of validity of TEMPERATURE

measurement.

We had 4 temperature Scales:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Celsius Scale Kelvin Scale Fahrenheit Scale Rankine Scale

The Kelvin Scale is related to Celsius scale by The Rankine Scale is related to scale by The Fahrenheit Scale is related to Celsius scale by
Ice-Point:-

Mixture of ice and liquid water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1atm pressure

Steam-Point:-

Mixture of Liquid water and water vapor that is in equilibrium at 1atm pressure
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Pressure is defined as normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Unit is Pascal Some different units of Pressure are

Absolute Pressure:Gage Pressure:-

The actual pressure at a given position is called Absolute Pressure and is measured relative to absolute Vacuum. The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atm. Pressure are called the Gage Pressure.

Vacuum Pressure:-

Pressure below the atm. Pressure are called Vacuum pressure measured by vacuum gauges.

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Forms of Energy

Thermal

Mechanical

Kinetic

Potential

Electric

Chemical

Nuclear

The Total Energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as

The Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame such as Kinetic Energy and Potential Energies.

On Unit Basis
The Microscopic forms of Energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside Reference Frames.

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the Internal Energy of a system and is denoted by U. 12

The Magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are significant in some specialized cases only and are usually ignored. Hence, The total Energy is expressed as

And on Unit basis can be expressed as

Amount of mass flowing through as cross section per unit time is called mass flow rate It is related to the volume flow rate.

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The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the Internal Energy of a system.

The Form of Energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Heat is defined as

Adiabatic Process:-

A process in which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process. i.e dQ=0

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Method of Heat Transfer

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energies particle of a substance to

the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between the particles. Convection is the transfer of heat between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion. Radiation is the transfer of energy due to emission of electromagnetic waves.

Work is energy transfer associated with

a force acting through a distance

And on Unit basis can be expressed as: It is also called Power.

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have Inexact differentials designated by a symbol Differential amount of heat or work is represented by or respectively. However, properties are point functions have exact differentials.

Path Functions

Forms of Work

Mechanical forms of Work

NonMechanical forms of Work

Electric Work

Shaft Work

Spring Work

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Energy can not be created nor destroyed but can change its form from one to another.

The net change in the total energy of Here, a system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and PE = 10 kJthe total energy leaving the system during that process

KE = 0

Now, PE = 7 kJ KE = 3 kJ
Where

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Mechanism of Heat Transfer

Mass Flow
Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of process expressed more compactly as And in Ratio Form:

Work Transfer

Heat Transfer

For a Cycle

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Simply, Desired output divided by desired input is called Efficiency

Efficiency of Generator

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A substance that had a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a Pure Substance Are composed of a single chemical species (e.g., either O2 or CO2 but not a mixture of O2 and CO2). May exist in more than one phase (e.g., solid and liquid)

A mixture of snow, ice, liquid water and water vapor is a pure substance.

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Properties Mass
Temperature Pressure Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy

Extensive m
V U H

Intensive T P v = V/m (specific volume) u = U/m (specific internal energy) h = H/m (specific enthalpy)

Any extensive property can be made intensive (specific) by dividing by mass.

Compressed Liquid Saturated Liquid

Existance of pure Substance in Liquid Phase Or the Liquid not about to Vaporize. A Liquid about to Vaporize.

Satutrated Vapour:-

A vapour that is about to condense. Super-Heated Vapour:A vapor that is not about to condense The temprature at which pure Substance changes phase is called a Saturation Temprature. The Pressure at which pure Substance changes phase is called a Saturation Pressure. The point at which saturated liquid and saturated vapour states are identical.

Constant Pressure Heating in Piston-Cylinder at P = 1 atm

Constant Pressure Heating in Piston-Cylinder at P = 2 atm

Temperature-Volume (T-v)Relation

Note directions of Isobars

Pressure-Volume (P-v)Relation

Note directions of Isotherms