LOAD FACTORS AND LOAD
COMBINATION
It is impossible that all loads like live load,
wind load and earthquake all occur together
with their maximum intensity.
A load combination combines different types
of loads depending on the probability of
occurrence of these loads, considering their
expected intensity in the combination
compared with the maximum load intensity.
1
The factors of safety are also included in the
LRFD load combinations and hence the
output of the expressions is a design load.
The alphabets used in the combinations
mean different types of nominal service
loads and the numerical values with them are
all the load factors.
2
When intermediate floors have full live
loads, any type of roof load may be
considered equal to half of its normal service
load intensity.
Similarly, in case of maximum intensity
wind storm, live load may be half.
3
The last combination, given afterwards, is
very important for uplift of structure or
reversal of forces.
The wind load on roof is upwards in majority
of the cases and if the downward gravity
load is less, the structure may be blown up or
sagging bending may change into hogging
bending.
A list of most commonly used combinations
are as under:
4
LRFD Load Combination
1. 1.4 (D+F)
2. 1.2 (D+F+T) + 1.6(L+H) +0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L +0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
LRFD Load Combination
dead load
L
live load
Lr
roof live load
W wind load
S
snow load
E
earthquake load
R
rainwater or ice load
H
load due to lateral earth pressure, ground
water pressure or pressure of bulk
materials
F
load due to fluids with well defined
pressures and max heights.
T
self-retaining force
D
LRFD Load Combination
Study the remaining discussion by yourself.
ASD Load Combination
1.
D+F
2.
D+H+F+L+T
3.
D + H +F + (Lr or S or R)
4.
D + H +F + 0.75(L + T) + 0.75 (Lr or S or R)
5.
D + H +F + (W or 0.7E)
6.
D + H +F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or
R)
7.
0.6D +W +H
8.
0.6D + 0.7E + H
Simplified Load Combinations
When the loads S, R, H, F, E and T are taken
equal to zero and wind loads are taken from
the previous codes, the load combinations
are reduced to the following from:
LRFD
1.
1.4D
2.
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5Lr
3.
1.2D + 1.6Lr + (L or 0.8W)
4.
1.2D + 1.3W + 1.0L + 0.5Lr
5.
0.9D + 1.3W
10
ASD
1.
2.
D+L
3.
D + Lr
4.
D + 0.75L + 0.75Lr
5.
D + 0.8W
6.
D + 0.6W + 0.75L + 0.75Lr
7.
0.6D + 0.8W
11
Live Load Reduction
The intensity of live load may be reduced if
the contributory area for the live load
exceeds certain limit.
It is due to the fact that, under these
circumstances, all the area may not be
subjected to the full load.
12
All uniform live loads, except the roof loads
(for which separate provisions are given in
ASCE-07), may be reduced as follows:
L L
Where
4.57
0.25
K LL AT
Lo
= the unreduced live load
AT
= tributary area in m2
KLL
= live load element factor
13
Interior columns and
exterior columns without
cantilever slabs.
KLL = 4
b Edge columns with
cantilever slabs.
KLL = 3
KLL = 2
Corner columns with
cantilever slabs, edge beams
without cantilever slabs and
interior beams.
d All other members
including slabs.
KLL = 114
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Steels are divided into four categories
depending on the carbon percentages (C)
as following:
1.
Low carbon steel
C < 0.15%
2.
Mild carbon steel
C = 0.15 - 0.29%
3.
Medium carbon steel
C = 0.30 0.59%
4.
High carbon steel
C = 0.60 1.70%
15
E-Value of steel = 185 GPa to 230 GPa
(Average 200 GPa)
Unit weight
= 7850 kg/m3
= 77 kN/m3
= 7.85 g/cc
For comparison, the unit weight of
concrete is 23.6 kN/m3.
16
Most of the structural steel falls into the mild
carbon steel or simply mild steel (MS)
category.
Hot rolled structural shapes may be made to
conform to A36M, A529M, A572M, A588M,
A709M, A913M and A992M.
17
Sheets are manufactured according to the
standards ASTM A606, A1011MSS, HSLAS
and HSLAS-F.
Bolts are made according to ASTM
standards A307, A325M, A449, A40M and
F1852.
18
Most commonly used structural steel is
A36M having the following properties:
Fy = 250 MPa
Fu = 400 MPa
E = 200 GPa
19
Weld Electrode And Filler Material
Weld electrodes are classified as E60, E70,
E80, E100 and E110.
The letter E denotes electrodes.
The two digits indicate the ultimate tensile
strength in ksi. The corresponding SI
equivalents are E425, E495, E550, E690 and
E760.
20
HOT ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
These are the steel cross-sectional shapes
that are hot rolled in the mills. Some of
these shapes are shown in Figure 1.2,
whereas, the steel bars, plates and hollow
sections are reproduced in Figure 1.3.
An HP h x w is a bearing pile section,
which is approximately h mm deep
weighing w kgs/m.
21
HOT ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Bearing piles are made with the regular W
rolls but with thicker web to provide better
resistance to the impact of pile driving.
HSS are hollow structural sections that are
prismatic square, rectangular or round
products of a pipe or tubing.
22
23
HOT ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Every hot rolled shape has its unique
standard designation, which not only tells
about the type of cross-sectional shape but
also about its size.
The details about some of the common hot
rolled shapes are given in the next slides.
24
Figure 1.2
Slope 0
W-Section
25
Figure 1.2
16.7% Slope
S-Section
26
Figure 1.2
Angle-Section
27
Figure 1.2
16.7% Slope
Channel-Section
28
Figure 1.2
Tee-Section
29
Figure 1.2
Thicker than flange
HP-Section
30
Figure 1.3
Pipe Section
31
Figure 1.3
Structural Tubing
32
Figure 1.3
Bars
33
Figure 1.3
Plates
34
1. W-Shapes
The letter W stands for an I-shape with
wide flange. The cross-section is doubly
symmetric in the form of the letter I. The
width / depth ratio varies from about 0.3 to
1.0.
The US Customary designation W 16 x 40
means that the nominal depth of the section
is 16 in and the weight per unit length of
the section is 40 lbs/ft.
35
1. W-Shapes
Nominal height is the rounded off height to
be used for common use.
Actual depth of the section may be in
decimals and somewhat different from this
depth.
36
Less or no slope
Flange
Web
The equivalent SI designation W410 x 60
means that the W-section has a nominal
depth of 410 mm and a weight of 60 kgf/m.
37
This kilogram-force weight per unit length
may be converted in kN/m by multiplying
it with the factor 9.81/1000.
38
2. S-Shapes
16.7% Slope
O Doubly symmetrical I-shapes.
O Previously called standard I-beams or
American Standard Beam.
39
2. S-Shapes
16.7 % Slope
O The inner edge of the flange has a slope of
approximately 16.7%.
O An S510 x 112 section means that the
section is S-shape having nominal depth of
510 mm and weight of 112 kgf/m.
40
2. S-Shapes
16.7 % Slope
O The width / depth ratio varies from about
0.25 to 0.85.
41
3. M-Shapes
O Miscellaneous I-shapes.
O Doubly symmetrical I-shapes not classified
as W or S shapes.
O Relatively lightweight used for smaller
spans and lesser loads.
O An M310 x 17.6 means that it is M-shape
section having nominal depth of 310 mm
and weight of 17.6 kgf/m.
42
4. C-Shapes
The C-shapes have
distinguishing features:
the
following
16.7 % Slope
O Channel shapes with standard proportions.
O Inner flange slope is 16.7%.
43
4. C-Shapes
The C-shapes have
distinguishing features:
the
following
16.7 % Slope
O Previously called Standard or American
Standard Channels.
44
4. C-Shapes
The C-shapes have
distinguishing features:
the
following
16.7 % Slope
O A C150 x 19.3 is a standard channel shape
with a nominal depth of 150mm and a
weight of 19.3 kgf/m.
45
5. MC-Shapes
These sections
properties:
have
the
following
O Channels not classified as C-shapes.
O Previously
called
Shipbuilding
Miscellaneous Channels.
or
46
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
The various types of angle sections are
shown in Figure and their salient features
are given below:
a
b
O The single angle sections are in the form of
letter L.
47
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
The various types of angle sections are
shown in Figure and their salient features
are given below:
a
b
O If a = b, these are called equal angle
sections.
48
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
The various types of angle sections are
shown in Figure and their salient features
are given below:
a
b
O If a b, these are called unequal angle
sections.
49
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
a
b
O Sides of the angle are called legs or
arms.
O L89 x 76 x 12.7 is an unequal leg angle
with longer leg dimension of 89mm and
shorter leg dimension of 76mm with a leg
thickness of 12.7mm.
50
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
a
b
O Double angle sections are combination of
two angles with longer or shorter sides
close to each other.
O Double angle sections are denoted by 2Ls.
51
6. L-Shapes or Angle Sections
a
b
O 2L89 x 76 x 12.7 means two angles L89 x
76 x 12.7 placed side by side in one of the
ways shown in the figure.
52
7. T-Shapes
O These are called structural tees.
O These are obtained by splitting W, S or M
shapes and are called WT, ST, or MT
shapes, respectively.
53
7. T-Shapes
O A WT205 x 30 is a structural tee with a
nominal depth of 205mm and a weight of
30kgf/m and is obtained by splitting the
W410 x 60 section.
54
COLD FORMED SHAPES
These sections are formed from thin high
strength steel alloy plates under normal
temperature.
Some of the common shapes of these
sections are drawn in Figure:
55
Channels
56
Zees
57
I-Shaped Double Channels
58
Angle
59
Hat Sections
60
BUILT-UP SECTIONS
Sections made by combining two or more
standard hot rolled sections, joined
together at intervals with the help of direct
welding, stay plates or lacing, are called
built-up sections.
Examples are four angles section, double
angle section and double channel section
shown in Figure.
61
BUILT-UP SECTIONS
However, double angle section is
sometimes excluded from built-up section
category and is considered as a regular hot
rolled member because of difference of its
behavior from other built-up sections.
62
4-Angle Box Section
63
Double Angle
64
Two Channels connected back-to-back
65
Question?
66
