Chapter 5 Design for

Different Types of Loading

Part 1 Types of stress and loading,
stress ratio, endurance strength,
design factors
Part 2 Failure theories
E. R. Evans, Jr./ R. Michael
MET 210W
 Static Load

F and P are applied and remain

constant

Stress Ratio, R =
1.0
Tim
e
 Dynamic Stress:
Loads that vary during normal service of the product
produce dynamic stress.
Dynamic stress can be cyclic or random.
High cycle fatigue part subject to millions of stress cycles.

Examples: Parts subject to dynamic stress?

Cyclic loads produce cyclic stress which can lead to mechanical fatigue
failure:

Mechanical Fatigue = The progressive and localized structural

damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The cyclic stress is well below tensile, Su and yield, Sy ,
strengths!
 Types of Cyclic Stress:

1. Repeated and Reversed (i.e. RR Moore,

rotating shafts, etc.) mean stress = 0.

2. Fluctuating stress (mean stress not zero):

a. Tensile mean stress (can cycle between
tension and compression or all tension)
b. Compressive mean stress (can cycle
between tension and compression or all
compression)
c. Repeated, one-direction stress
 Definitions:
max min
a = Alternating stress
2 2

max min
m = Mean stress
2

min
R = R value:

max R = 0, repeated and one direction, i.e.

stress cycles from 0 to max value.
R =-1, Fully reversed (R-R Moore)
 1.Repeated & Reversed
Stress
an element subjected to a repeated
and alternating tensile and
compressive stresses.

Continuous total load reversal over

time
Demo: Switch to Excel
1.Repeated and Reversed
Stress

min
R 1
max
The average or mean stress is zero.
 Cyclic loading. (a) Very low amplitude acoustic vibration. (b) High-cycle fatigue: cycling well
below general yield, y. (c) Low cycle fatigue: cycling abovegeneral yield (but below the tensile strength ts).

All stresses above are repeated and reversed (R = -1)

 Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
R-R More = Spinning bending elements
most common.
Fast, cost effective, pure bending stress
See:
http://www.instron.co.uk/wa/solutions/rotating_beam_fatigue.aspx
 Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
Sontag = Constant stress cantilever
beams
Good for flat stock (sheets)
Get shear stress in addition to bending
stress.
Top View

Specimen
 Fatigue
Test Data
Testing
Stress, (ksi)

Number of Cycles to Failure, N

Data from R. B. Englund, 2/5/93
 Endurance
Endurance strength is the stress level
that a material can survive for a given
number of load cycles.
Endurance limit is the stress level that
a material can survive for an infinite
number of load cycles.
Estimate for Wrought Steel:
Endurance Strength = 0.50(S u)

Most nonferrous metals (aluminum) do

not have an endurance limit.
 Representative Endurance
Strengths

Estimated endurance strength of steel is about

0.50 * Su
 2. Fluctuating Stress
When an element experiences alternating
stress, but the mean stress is NOT zero.

Load varies between P and Q over

time
 2.Fluctuating Stress
Example
Bending of Rocker Arm
Valve Spring Force
Valve Open

Valve Closed

Tension in Valve Stem

Valve Closed
Valve Spring Force

Valve
RBE
Open
2/1/91

Adapted from R. B. Englund

Types of Fluctuating Stress:
 Tensile Stress w/ Tensile
Mean
Case 1:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2
 Partially Reversed w/ Tensile
Mean
Case 2:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max is tensile and min is

compressive
 Partially Reversed w/
Compressive Mean
Case 3:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max is tensile and min is

compressive
 Compressive Stress w/
Compressive Mean
Case 4:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max and min are both compressive

 Repeated One Direction
Stress
Case 5:
 Example of the Effect of Stress
Ratio on Endurance Strength of
a Material

Mott, Fig. 5-11, Pg.

180
 Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation
of permanent damage (m)
2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm)
3. Growth and coalescence of cracks
into dominant crack (striations).
4. Stable crack growth (Beach marks)
5. Instability and rapid failure (area
goes down, stress goes up eventually
exceeding tensile strength).
 Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation
of permanent damage (m)
2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm)

These two steps = crack initiation = 99%

of the total life!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Key: prevent cracks from forming at
surface!!!!!!!!!!
 B
Instantane
uos Fast
Fracture!
A
Crack
nucleation
and Growth
The endurance limit plotted against the tensile strength. Almost all materials
fail in fatigue at stresses well below the tensile strength.
 Design Factor
Analysis Failure Strength
Factor of Safety
Applied Stress
Sy
Example : N

Design
Failure Strength
Allowable Stress
Design Factor
Sy
Example : ALLOW
N
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application
Environment
Loads
Types of Stresses
Material
Confidence
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application How many will be produced?
Environment What manufacturing methods
Loads will be used?
Types of Stresses What are the consequences
Material of failure?
Confidence Danger to people
Cost
Size and weight important?
What is the life of the
component?
Justify design expense?
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application Temperature range.
Environment Exposure to electrical voltage
Loads or current.
Types of Stresses Susceptible to corrosion
Material
Is noise control important?
Confidence
Is vibration control important?
Will the component be
protected?
Guard
Housing
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application Nature of the load
Environment considering all modes of
operation:
Loads Startup, shutdown, normal
Types of Stresses operation, any foreseeable
Material overloads
Confidence Load characteristic
Static, repeated &
reversed, fluctuating,
shock or impact
Variations of loads over time.
Magnitudes
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application What kind of stress?
Environment Direct tension or
Loads compression
Direct shear
Types of Bending
Stresses Torsional shear
Material Application
Confidence Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application Material properties
Environment
Ultimate strength, yield
Loads strength, endurance strength,
Types of Stresses
Ductility
Material Ductile: %E
Confidence 5%
Brittle: %E < 5%
Ductile materials are
preferred for fatigue, shock or
impact loads.
 Factors Effecting Design
Factor
Application Reliability of data for
Environment Loads
Loads Material properties
Stress calculations
Types of Stresses
Material How good is manufacturing
quality control
Confidence
Will subsequent handling, use
and environmental conditions
affect the safety or life of the
component?
Recommended Design
Factors
Confidence in material
properties, analysis,
loads, the environment,
etc.

See Mott,
pages 185 - 186
Design Factor