TRANSPORT ACROSS THE

CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE

Michael Hodgson
Introduction
Cell membranes are only about 7nm wide but
they present barriers to the movement of ions
and molecules, particularly polar (water-
soluble) molecules such as glucose and amino
acids that are repelled by the non-polar,
hydrophobic lipids of membranes.
This prevents the aqueous contents of the cell
from escaping.
However, transport across membranes must
still occur for a number of reasons, for
example:
Intro
To obtain nutrients
To excrete substances
To secrete useful substances
To generate the ionic gradients essential for
nervous and muscular activity
To maintain a suitable pH and ionic
concentration within the cell for enzyme
activity.
Intro.
There are four basic mechanisms by which
movement occurs across the cell
membrane:
1. diffusion,
2. osmosis,
3. active transport and
4. bulk transport (endocytosis or

endocytosis).
The first two processes are passive, that is

they do not require the expenditure of

energy by the cell; the latter two are active,
energy-consuming processes.
 Diffusion and
Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions
from a region of their high concentration to a
region of their low concentration down a
diffusion gradient.
The process is passive, that is it does not

require energy and happens spontaneously.

For example, if a bottle of perfume was opened

in a closed room, the perfume would eventually

spread by diffusion until equilibrium was
reached where the perfume was evenly spread
throughout the room.
This occurs by random motion of molecules

which is due to their kinetic energy (energy of

movement).
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Each type of molecule moves down its own
diffusion gradient independently of other
molecules.
For example, oxygen diffuses from the lung

into the blood while at the same time

carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite
direction.
Three factors in particular affect the rate of

difussion.
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion

1. The steepness of the diffusion gradient, or

difference in concentration between
point A and point B: the steeper the
gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
It is an advantage for cells to maintain
steep diffusion gradients if rapid
transport is required. This can be
achieved in the lungs, for example, by
speeding up the flow of blood through
the lungs or by breathing faster.
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion

2. The greater the surface are of a

membrane through which diffusion is
taking place, the greater the rate of
diffusion. The larger the cell, assuming it
is roughly spherical, the smaller its
surface area in relation to its volume. Thus
places a limit on cell size. For example,
a very large aerobic cell could not obtain
oxygen fast enough to satisfy its needs if
it relied on diffusion alone. Microvilli
increase the surface area of animal cells
for absorption purposes.
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
3. Rate of diffusion decreases rapidly with
distance (it falls in proportion to the square of
the distance). Diffusion is therefore only
effective over very short distances. This is
another factor which limits cell size. Cells rely
on diffusion for internal transport of molecules
so most are no larger than 50m in diameter,
with no part of the cell more than 25 m from
the cell surface. An amino molecule, for
example, can travel a few micrometers in
several seconds but would take several days
to diffuse a few centimeters. It is also
essential that membranes are thin so that
molecules or ions can cross them rapidly.
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion

We can now consider which molecules cross

membranes by diffusion.
The respiratory gases oxygen and carbon
dioxide diffuse rapidly through membranes.
Water molecules, although very polar, are small
enough to pass between the hydrophobic
phospholipid molecules without interference.
However, ions and larger polar molecules such
as amino acids, sugars, fatty acids and glycerol
are repelled by the hydrophobic region of the
membrane and diffuse across extremely slowly.
Other mechanisms are required for these
substances.
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Some ions and polar molecules can diffuse
through special transport proteins called channel
proteins and carrier proteins.
These contain water-filled hydrophobic channels

or pores whose shape is specific for a particular

ion or molecule.
Alternatively several proteins combine, forming a

channel between them. Diffusion can occur

through the channel in either direction.
Since diffusion would not be possible without the

protein or proteins, the process is known as

facilitated diffusion.
Transport proteins allow the passage of ions are

called ion channels.

Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
OSMOSIS
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water molecules
from a region of their high concentration to
a region of their low concentration through
a partially permeable membrane.
It is best regarded as a form of diffusion in

which only water molecules move.

The tendency of water molecules to move

from one place to another is measured as

the water potential, represented by the
symbol .
 Water always move from a region of higher
water potential to one of lower water
potential.
Solute molecules reduce (in effect, they

dilute the water!).

The extent by which they lower is known

as solute potential, given symbol s.

Consider the effects of different solution on
red blood cells.
Osmosis in animal cell
Osmosis in animal cell
In a hypotonic solution, the solution has a
higher water potential than the contents of the
red cell.
Water therefore enters by osmosis and the cell
bursts, dispersing the cell contents.
A hypertonic solution has lower water potential
than the cell contents, so water leaves the cell
by osmosis and the cell shrinks.
In an isotonic solution, water potential of the
cell equals that of the external solution and no
net movement of water occurs. The cell
remains normal.
Blood plasma must be kept isotonic to red
blood cells and other body cells.
Osmosis in plant cells
Osmosis in plant cells
Cells do not burst when it is put into water
As it swells it push against the strong cell wall
Cell wall resists expansion of the cell, exerting a
force called pressure potential
Cell becomes full and stiff, a state called turgor
In concentrated solutions water leaves cell by
osmosis
The cell therefore shrinks
If lot of water is loss, cells loses its turgor and is
said to be flaccid
Volume of cell gets smaller and plasma
membrane pulls away from the cell wall
A cell in this state is said to be plasmolysed
Active Transport
Active Transport
Active transport is the energy-consuming
transport of molecules or ions across a
membrane against a concentration gradient.
Energy is required because the substance
must be moved against its natural tendency
to diffuse in the opposite direction.
Movement is usually in one direction only,
unlike diffusion which is reversible.
The energy supplied in the form of a
molecule known as ATP, which is an energy
carrier made in respiration.
Without respiration, active transport is
therefore impossible.
Active Transport
The major ions inside cells and in their, are
sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+) and
chloride (Cl-) ions.
Sodium is actively pumped out of the cell
and potassium is actively pumped in.
Active transport is achieved by carrier
proteins situated in the cell surface
membrane.
Unlike the situation described for facilitated
diffusion, the carrier proteins involved in
active transport need a supply of energy to
keep changing shape. The energy is
provided by ATP from respiration.
Active Transport
It has been shown that the cell surface
membranes of most cells have sodium
pumps that actively pump sodium ions out
of the cell.
In animal cells, the sodium pump is coupled

with a potassium pump which actively

moves potassium ions from outside to
inside the cell.
The combined pump is called the sodium-

potassium pump (Na+-K+ pump).

The pump is a carrier protein which spans

the membrane from one side to the other.

Active Transport
On the inside it accepts sodium and ATP,
while one the outside it accepts potassium.
The transfer of sodium and potassium

across the membrane is brought about by

changes in the shape of the protein.
Note that for every 2K+ taken into the cell,

3Na+ are removed.

Thus a potential difference is built up across

the membrane, with the inside of the cell

being negative.
This tends to restrict the entry of negatively

charge ions (anions) such as chloride.

Active Transport
The pump is essential in controlling the
osmotic balance of animal cells
(osmoregulation).
If the pump is inhibited, the cell swells and

burst because a build-up of sodium ions

results in excess water entering the cells by
osmosis.
Active Transport
ENDOCYTOSIS AND
EXOCYTOSIS
 Endocytosis and exocytosis are active
processes involving the bulk transport of
materials through membranes, either into
cells (endocytosis) or out of cells
(exocytosis)
Endocytosis
Endocytosis occurs by an infolding or
extension of the cell surface membrane to
form vesicles or vacuole. It is of two types.
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Endocytosis

Phagocytosis (cell eating) material

taken up is in solid form. Cells specializing
in the process are called phagocytes and
are said to be phagocytic.
For example, some white blood cells take up

bacteria by phagocytosis. The sac formed

during uptake is called a phagocytic
vacuole.
Pinocytosis (cell drinking)- material taken

up is in liquid form. Vesicles formed are

often extremely small, in which case the
process is known as micropinocytosis and
the vesicles as micropinocytotic vesicles.