METHODS FOR

CONTROLLING TRANSIENTS
 Wave-speed Reduction Methods
 Air Chamber or Accumulator
 Surge Tanks
 Flow-Control Methods and Valving
 System Geometrical Design Changes
 Introduction
Ideally the design process for fluid pipeline systems includes an
adequate investigation and specification of equipment and operational
procedures to avoid undesirable transients . Unfortunately this is not
always the case and remedial measures are required to keep transient
conditions from seriously disturbing the proper functioning of an existing
system . Unexpected sources of unsteady flow also appear in some newly
constructed system. Some of the major methods for controlling transients
are discussed in upcoming slides.
 Wave-speed Reduction Methods

Since the head change for a given flow change is directly

proportional to the wave propagation velocity, the reduction of wave-speed
is likely to be beneficial in control of transients. Wave-speeds depend
upon:
(1) elastic wall properties and geometry
(2) liquid compressibility, and
(3) free gas content in the pipeline.
The response frequencies of complete systems may be altered by
the wave-speed change in component parts of the system, thereby
eliminating resonance as a result of a particular forced oscillation.
 Bleeding in air

Entraining air into the liquid flow in a system is widely used to

eliminate unwanted transients. Usually a section in the system is selected
in which the pressure is less than atmospheric, such as the entrance to a
draft tube. Here, the air is beneficial in reducing the severity of cavitation
and also in reducing transient oscillation related to wave-speeds in the
draft tubes.
Rather than bleed in air, one may hold the air along the length of
the pipe within a small flexible hose in the pipe that is sealed in at closely
spaced sections so that the air is trapped . Thus, the effective bulk modulus
of elasticity of the system is reduced. This device was developed by G.
Remenieras and was patented in France in 1951.
 Non circular conduit

A non circular cylinder, when subjected to an internal pressure, is deformed

generally into a shape more nearly approaching a circular cylinder; this thre by
increases the cross –sectional area per unit pressure change more rapidly than it
would if it were circular. The wave-speed can be greatly reduced in this manner.
More analysis is needed for various noncircular cross sections, so that wave-speeds
can be calculated as well as the maximum wall stresses. Depending upon the pipe
supports, large pipes tend to deform into noncircular cross sections, which decrease
the wave-speed.

Flexible hose

In small systems flexible hose is frequently employed as a means

of reducing the severity of transients. Many of the plastic hoses also provide
this feature.
 Air Chamber or Accumulator
The accumulator, air bottle, air vessel, or air chamber may be
designed to keep the pressure from exceeding a predetermined value, or to
prevent low pressures and column separation. When properly designed it
can protect against rapid transients as well as against longer period surges
in a system. It is basically a closed container partially filled with the
system liquid topped with air or gas. The gas may be in contact with the
liquid, in which case an air compressor, or gas supply, is used to maintain
the proper mass of air or gas, or the gas may he separated from the liquid
by a flexible membrane or a piston. In an analysis of this device the
resistance and inertance built into it by orifices, nozzles, or by a connecting
pipe should be considered. Similarly the mass and resistance to motion of a
piston or diaphragm should be taken into account.
 The accumulator generally operates at the local system pressure. In
Fig. 10-1(a), if the valve is closed abruptly the flow enters the air chamber,
the air is compressed, and the flow in the main pipeline is gradually
reduced as the pressure builds up. The peak pressure can be reduced
considerably in this situation. A similar small -volume air chamber can be
very effective in smoothing out short transients generated by reciprocating
pumps or other positive displacement devices.
Figure 10-1(b) shows a larger air chamber installed at the
discharge side of a centrifugal pumping station to protect against low
pressures and column separation during stoppage of the pumps. Generally
a check valve is used as shown to prevent back flow. Care must be taken to
design the connectors between accumulator and pipeline so there is little
delay in the action of the air chamber.
 The size of the air volume, to control the maximum pressure, and the size
of liquid volume to avoid emptying the tank during the low pressure cycle
may be determined by a lumped parameter analysis. Losses in asymmetric
designs may be accounted for properly in the study. Some designs call for
a check valve with a smaller diameter bypass line in the throat to the air
chamber. This allows for an easy supply of the liquid during the low
pressure cycle, and constricted flow during the high pressure period. The
duration of the long period surging is generally reduced by this design.
 Surge Tanks
Surge tanks are open tanks connected to the piping system. They
take several forms, depending upon their number, arrangement, and the
nature of restrictions between the surge tanks and the piping system. A
simple surge tank has very little resistance of flow of liquid into or out of it
(Fig. 10-2) and is generally sized so that it will not be drained by
maximum flow demand and will not be overtopped by downstream
reduction of flow. Sometimes spillways are provided so that the tank may
be overtopped. Simple surge tanks, chimneys, or stand pipes as they are
sometimes called, serve as partial reflection points for pressure waves
thereby protecting longer tunnels from excessive short period pressure
oscillations. An orifice surge tank (Fig. 10-3) has a restricted connection
between tank and piping system, frequently with a lower discharge
coefficient for flow into the tank.
 A differential surge tank is, in effect, two surge tanks, a simple
surge tank and an orifice surge tank. They may be combined, as in Fig. 10-
4(a), or separated, as in Fig. 10-4(b). A one-way surge tank, usually
designed to avoid column separation, does not need to extend up to the
hydraulic grade line, and needs only sufficient capacity to fill the void
caused by a column separation. One-way surge tanks are primarily used in
connection with pumping plants (Fig. 10-5).
 Sizing of surge tanks
The sizing of surge tanks in hydro-power systems to guarantee
stability is not treated in any detail here in. Charles Jaeger reviews the
problem of stability and gives an extensive bibliography on the subject.
The period of oscillation of a system. Fig. 10-2, neglecting friction is given
by

Water hammer effects in the penstock are generally of much

shorter period than surge-tank fluctuations; hence, the two problems of
surge oscillation and water hammer are generally treated separately. A
water hammer analysis of the surge tank, penstock, turbine system should
be investigated over the range of surge-tank oscillations. The complete
action of the governor must be included.
 For the surge oscillations the governor is able to adjust the gates
of the turbine to hold approximately constant power. Since the penstock is
usually short, the surge analysis of the pressure tunnel and surge tank
usually assumes that the constant power relation exists at the upstream end
of the penstock. By assuming small amplitude oscillations, and writing the
surge equation for the tunnel, continuity at the surge tank, and constant
power to the penstock, the Thoma criteria for required minimum surge tank
area for stability may be determined.

A computer analysis of the complete equations is possible without the

limiting assumptions imposed to obtain the analytical solution given in Eq.
(10-2).
For the simple surge -tank system the equation of motion for the pressure
pipe is (Fig. 10-2)

is the coefficient and k is the entrance loss coefficient.

The continuity equation is (Fig. 10-2)

in which AS= area of surge tank, Q = penstock discharge, and Q T= pressure

pipe discharge. The power relation may take the form

in which Fl(t) is any arbitrarily imposed function of time. For constant power
output, neglecting the penstock losses
 in which η is the turbine efficiency and must be obtained from the turbine
characteristics for the appropriate head and discharge. For the case of
assumed constant η, Eq. (10-6) combined with Eq. (10-4) yields

Runge Kutta methods can be used to solve Eqs. (10-3) and (10-7).
Differential surge-tank systems may be treated similarly. It may be noted
that this is a lumped inertia analysis in which the liquid has been assumed
incompressible. A standard water hammer analysis of this problem should
provide the same response as the surge analysis. It would, however, require
excessive computer time to cover the full duration of the surge oscillations.
Flow -Control Methods and Valving
Air chambers and surge tanks are probably the safest and most
maintenance -free solutions to transient problems. A reduced rate of flow
change, through slower valve action or increased moment of inertia in
turbo machines, is an effective solution to many problems. If a regular
maintenance program is practiced then auxiliary valving and flow-control
valves may provide a more economical and satisfactory solution. A careful
initial design is generally required as well as a continuous service program
to ensure operation in accordance with the design.
The relief valve is one of the common devices to control excess
pressures. It may be loaded by a spring. Fig. 10-6, or by weights; the valve
opens when the set pressure is exceeded. It may close immediately when
the pressure drops below the setting, or it may have a damped closure to
allow for a much longer closure time. It is important for a relief valve to
have a low inertia so that it can open before the set pressure is greatly
exceeded..
 A rupture disk is an alternative safety measure if it is not activated too
frequently. It consists of an opening in the pipe covered by a diaphragm
that ruptures and relieves pressure beyond a certain limit. The rupture disk
protects equipment from excessive pressure, but it is troublesome to
replace.
Check valves are frequently installed at the discharge flange of a
pump to prohibit reversal of flow through the unit when power is shut off
This avoids the loss of liquid during reverse flow and the danger of high
head buildup due to the running away of the pump backwards. If the check
valve has very little inertia and is un-damped, it closes very soon after
reversal. If the head at the pump has already dropped a considerable
amount, say ∆H, then the trapped liquid between pump and downstream
reservoir acts like a liquid spring, with the head at the check valve surging
upward to about ∆H above the elevation of reservoir.
 For a damped check valve, the resulting transients depend on exactly
how the valve is permitted to close. A delay in starting the closure,
followed by a uniform closure, would usually yield very high pressure
unless the closure were very gradual; the slow closure, however, lets the
pressure build up because of the running away of the pump. If the check
valve closes rapidly until it is about 97 to 98 percent closed, then closes
gradually for the last 3 to 2 percent, the transients may be held within
reasonable limits.
Flow-control valves designed for optimum closure in accordance
with the principles can he very effective in pump discharge lines. The
design can call for a valve closure schedule with two or more closure rates
that will permit maximum head buildup to any arbitrary value above the
downstream reservoir. At the same time the reverse rotation of the pump
may be controlled.
 Various forms of surge suppressors and bypass valving are also possible.
Two alternatives are shown in Fig. 10-7 for protection of a pumping station. To
prevent backlit:3w through the pump a check valve is installed in Fig. 10-7(a),
with a control valve in a smaller bypass line. The control valve is opened after
pump failure and then is allowed to close slowly. Care must be exercised to be
sure the control valve is not opened too soon. In some installations this could
increase the danger of column separation. In long pipelines where there is little
concern for excessive backflow the pump can be isolated from the pipeline
transient by a pump discharge -control valve as shown in Fig. 10-7(b). A check
valve in a bypass line allows free How to the pipeline to prevent low pressures
and column separation. In long lines with a small gravity load, long duration
surges may exist in such a system. Although these are not particularly
dangerous they persist for some time since the losses are generally low. A small
-diameter bypass of the check valve shown schematically with the dotted fines
in Fig. 10-7(b) may help alleviate this problem.
 In reaction turbine installations a flow diverter or relief valve is often
provided to divert the flow during load rejection. An energy dissipator
must be provided to absorb the excess power in the penstock. The diverter
closes gradually to reduce the penstock flow in a controlled manner.
For protection against low -pressures, air-inlet valves, Sec. 5.5, are
provided at critical points in a piping system. They must be located at the
correct position to provide the necessary protection and they also must be
sized to allow sufficient air into the line. Once the air has been admitted it
must also be expelled slowly during start-up or excessively high pressures
can be generated . Air can also travel along the pipe with the flow and may
be troublesome to remove.
It is clear that various valving-piping combinations can be designed
to protect most any situation. In each case regular servicing is an essential
feature to be assured that the hardware will operate as designed when
needed.
System Geometrical Design Changes
The transient performance of a piping system may be improved,
in general, by increasing piping diameter. Since head change is directly
proportional to velocity change, doubling of the diameter reduces pressure
fluctuations by a factor of about 4. This design change may be particularly
effective in suction lines, since it greatly decreases the possibility of
cavitation. For steady-oscillatory excitation of a piping system, a small
change in length may greatly improve the system performance by
increasing the time difference between the natural period of the system and
the period of one of the harmonics of the excitation. An example, based on
a computer study, showed a reduction of transients in the suction line of a
quintuplex pump from +/-100ft to +/- 30ft, effected by decreasing the
suction -line length from 7ft to 6.4ft. The tuned stub may be very effective
in eliminating a significant oscillation at a given frequency. It is a dead-end
branch originating at a chosen point along the system and of such a length
that its response nullifies oncoming waves.
 Two or more stubs of appropriate length and location may control
transients over a range of frequencies. The concepts of oscillatory flow
and free are useful in such designs. Changes in wave-speed may
accomplish the same effect. A section of rubber or other flexible hose in a
metal piping system generally increases natural periods of the system.
Also, since head fluctuations are proportional to wave-speeds, their
magnitudes are reduced within the flexible hose reaches.
In certain existing systems with unsatisfactory transients of a
steady-oscillatory nature, the solution may be one of decreasing the
harmful effects of the resonance by stiffening and bracing the system at the
loop points of the pressure fluctuations. In summary, by proper design of
components such as valve controls, pipeline sizes, pump flywheels, etc.,
and by informed operational procedures, transient effects in fluid systems
generally may be controlled within satisfactory limits.
 The provision of an air chamber or surge tank is an excellent design
option, followed in a priority ranking by other pressure- and (low -limiting
devices such as relief valves, check valves, air valves, bypasses with
valving, etc. Combinations of these components, and others, may also be
desirable in some situations. The same concepts apply to both large and
small scale hydraulic systems. Occasionally the source of the disturbance
cannot be identified or, once located, the oscillations are impossible to
eliminate. In this case stiffening and bracing of the piping system may be
the only solution so the system can be used without risk of failure.