Adigrat University: College of Engineering and Technology

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ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUITER
ENGINEERING
CHAPTER-01
BASIC RESEARCH & RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Compilied By Bisrat K. 1
Background
Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the
nature through experience
, reasoning and research
1.Experience
(includes a number of sources of information)
 personal experience, i.e. body of knowledge and skills
derived
from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his
environment
 Experience of others
2.Reasoning
 Deductive (Aristotle) -From whole to part
 Inductive (Francis bacon) – From number
of observations
 Combined
Cont.…
3. Research:- is a combination of both experience &reasoning and
must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of
truth (particularly in natural science)
Systematic & controlled
Empirical
Self-correcting
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
 Research is a way of thinking.
 It is a habit of questioning what to do, and a systematic
examination of the observed information in order to find answers.
 In the chosen profession, research is done in order to come up with
better ways to deliver effective professional services.
 Research utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and create new knowledge.
KEY QUESTIONS IN PLANNING THE RESEARCH
 What do I want to know? This is when you list down the topics
that interest you.
 What kind of evidence will answer my question?
 How will I get that evidence?
 How will I analyze that evidence?
 How do I present the results?
QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF
 What topic interest me most?
 What existing real world problem can this topic be applied to?
 Is this a problem that can be solved by scientific enquiry?
 Are adequate resources available for this topic?
Definition research
Research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic
 .i.e. research is an art of scientific investigation
Research comprises
Defining and redefining problems
Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
Collecting organizing and evaluating data
Making deductions and reaching conclusions.
Cont..
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures
MOTIVATION In RESEARCH
To solve a problem
To get intellectual joy
To serve society
To face a challenge
To get degree
To get respectability
Cont..
Purpose of research
To increase standard of living in case of Science and
technology
To show the right path of the society in case of Social and
behavioral sciences
HOW RESEARCH IS DONE?
 Research uses procedures, methods and techniques that have
been tested for their validity and reliability.
 It is designed to be unbiased and objective .
Terms Used
Research Techniques
 Behavior and instruments used in research operations
 Example: Scales , recording techniques, content analysis, moving
average , longitudinal/cross sectional collection of data, etc
Research Method
 Behavior and instruments used in selecting and consulting techniques ( a
range of approaches used to gather data)
 Examples: Observation , questionnaire, interview, analysis of records,
case study ,etc
 Methods are more general than techniques.
Methods &techniques are used in performing research operations i.e.
 Collection of data
 Statistical processing & analysis (test)
 To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained
Note : Research techniques and research methods are almost
interchangeably used .
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH PAPER TOPIC AND
RESEARCH PAPER TITLE
Research paper topic is what you will be investigating. Research
paper topic is either given by your professor or chosen by yourself.
It is the wider notion. It presents the area of investigation.
Research paper title is the formulation of the area of your
investigation.
A narrow the scope of your study.
HOW TO COMPOSE A RESEARCH TITLE?
 Title should be formulated so that the reader would get the idea of
what he/she will be reading about.
 Long titles are OK.
 Make sure that important claims are reflected in the title.
 Write your research title first and rewrite it again after you are
done with your research.
 The title should be very specific.
 Borrowing a phrase from the conclusion and using it as your title

will give your research a nice “circle” effect, providing the reader
with a sense of closure.
WHAT NOT TO DO IN MAKING THE TITLE?

It’s a bad idea to choose a provocative or interrogative title.
Benefits of research
1.Advancement of wealth of human knowledge
2. Provides tools to look at the things in life objectively.
3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude , disciplined
thinking or a bent of mind ‘ to observe objectively (scientific
deduction & inductive thinks )
4. Provides chance to study subject in depth : Enable us to make
intellectual decisions
5. As consumer of research output helps to include the ability to
evaluate and use results of carrier research with reasonable
confidence and take rational decisions .
6. Doing research is the best way of to learn and think critically.
Cont..
Other benefits of research includes
Enables critical evaluation of literature
Develops special interest & skills
Helps to understand attitude of others
Creates awareness of special needs of research process.
Facilitates reference and information service
Types of Research
1. Basic vs. Applied research
 The distinction between basic and applied research is largely by the
focus of their applications.
 This distinction comes from basic science vs. applied science.
Example: physics and engineering
 Basic research focuses on determining or establishing
the basic or fundamental relationships within a discipline without
paying attention to any practical applications to the real world.
 In contrast, applied research is usually conducted to solve a
particular and concrete problem.
Cont..
2. Descriptive vs. Analytical:- Descriptive research includes surveys
and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
 Major purpose is description and It is widely used in social
science and business areas
Main characteristic
 The researcher has no control over the variables;
i.e. He/she can only report what has happened or what is happening.
For example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or
similar data.
Research methodology:- Survey type of all kinds, including
comparative and correlation methods.
Cont..
3.Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind
Example:
Why people think or do certain things
Attitude or opinion research
Note: Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behavior.
Cont..
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical(experimental) research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
 Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control
over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects.
 Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is
today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a
given hypothesis
Research Approaches
Two basic approaches
1. Quantitative approach
 It involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can
be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion and has two parts
Inferential:- The purpose of inferential approach to research is to
form a database from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population.
This usually means survey research where a sample of
population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the
same characteristics
Experimental approach:- in this case some variables are
manipulated to observe their effect on other variables
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated
Cont..
2.Qualitative approach to research
 It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behavior.
 Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights
and impressions.
 Such an approach to research generates results either in non-
quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. For a
research journey there are two important decisions to make:
I. What you want to find out about or what research questions
(problems) you want to find answers to;
II. How to go about finding their answers.
 The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes
research methodology.
Research methodology:- is a way to systematically solve the
research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods.
Cont..
In research methodology we not only talk of the research methods
but also consider
 The logic behind the methods we use in the context of our
research study
 Explain why we are using a particular method or technique
 why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Cont..
Steps in Research Process:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Generalization and Interpretation
8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-
Formal write ups of conclusions reached.
Cont..
Step1. Formulating the research problem:
It is the first and most crucial step in the research process
Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.
The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step
that follows.
Every research study has two aspects:
1. Study population -People: individuals, organizations, groups,
communities (they provide you with the information or you collect
information about them)
2. Subject area:- Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs,
profiles
 Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions,
consumers, Service providers, etc.
 Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a
phenomenon itself (Information that you need to collect to find
answers to your research questions).
Cont..
Considerations in selecting a research problem:
These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that
you will remain motivated.
1. Interest:- a research endeavor is usually time consuming, and
involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should
select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude:- It is extremely important to select a topic that you
can manage within the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow
the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts:- Make sure that you are clear about
the indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
Cont..
4. Level of expertise:- Make sure that you have adequate level of
expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the
work yourself.
5. Relevance:- Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of
knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation.
This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data:- Before finalizing the topic, make sure that
data are available.
7. Ethical issues:- How ethical issues can affect the study population
and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly
examined at the problem formulating stage.
Cont..
Steps in formulation of a research problem :
 Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of
knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be
undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and
adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.
Step1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step3 Select what is of most interest to you.
Step4 Raise research questions.
Step5 Formulate objectives.
Step6 Assess your objectives.
Step7 Double check.
Cont..
Step 2. Reviewing the literature:
 Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body
of knowledge in your area of interest.
 Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable
contribution to every operational step.
 Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is
also rewarding. Its functions are:
1. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
 The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject
area better and thus helps you to conceptualize your research problem clearly
and precisely
2. Improve your methodology;
 A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods
similar to the ones that you are proposing.
 Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of
providing valid answer to your research questions
Cont..
3. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area:
 It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you
intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an
expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation.
 It also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit
into the existing body of knowledge.
4. Contextualize your findings:
 How do answers to your research questions compare with what
others have found?
 What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing
body of knowledge?
 How are your findings different from those of others?
 For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back
to your literature review.
 It is important to place your findings in the context of what is
already known in your field of enquiry.
Cont..
Procedure for reviewing the literature:
1. Search for existing literature in your area of study;
Sources are:
 books
 journals
2. Review the literature selected;
 After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is
to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are
associated.
3. Develop a theoretical framework;
 Set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main
themes pertinent to your research topic.
4. develop a conceptual framework.
 systematic comparison of your findings with those made by others.
Cont..
Step 3 The formulation of objectives:
 Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
 They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
 It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) main objectives ( aims);
 The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study.
 It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish.
b) sub-objectives
 The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study.
 They should be numerically listed. Wording should clearly, completely and
specifically Communicate to your readers your intention.
 Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
 Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
Cont..
The objectives should start with words such as
‘to determine’,
‘to find out’,
‘to ascertain’,
‘to measure’,
‘to minimize ‘
‘to explore’ etc. example
To minimize the effect of noise in computer design.
To design noise resistive amplifier.
Cont..
CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTIVES
Clear
Complete
Specific
Identify main variables to be correlated
Identify the direction of relationship
Cont..
Step 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted.
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
 The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular
research problem, involves the consideration of the following :
1. Objectives of the research study.
2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of information
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis: qualitative and quantitative
DATA COLLECTION
Types of Data
Primary Data— collected for the first time
Secondary Data—those which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else.
Methods of Collecting the primary data or information
Observation Method
It is the gathering of primary data by investigator’s own
direct observation.
Survey Method
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of
all respondents in the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe
respondents and guide the interview to their answers.
Cont..
Contact Methods
By mail, by telephone, by personal interview, or by form of
questionnaires.
Experimental Method/Cause and Effect Method
Used in Empirical Research
A data-based research of which conclusions are verified with
observation or experiment.
The researcher has control over the variables under study and
deliberately manipulate one of the variables to study its effects.
The researcher provides with assumptions or initial guess as to
the probable results. He then sets up experimental designs which
he thinks will manipulate the variable so as to bring forth the
desired information.
Cont..
 When the researcher has already formulated the research problem,
developed a study design, constructed a research instrument and
selected a sample, he will then collect the data from which he
draws inferences and conclusions of his study.
 Depending upon the research, data might be collected through,
mailed questionnaires or contact the respondents, conduct
experiments and/or make observations.
TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

 Research results and conclusions are based upon the type of
information/data that are collected.
 The research tool provides input into the study and thus the quality
and validity of the output is dependent on the input.
“Garbage in garbage out”

GUIDELINES IN CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH TOOL
 Clearly define and list all the specific objectives of the study.
 List all associated questions related to the objectives. List the data
or information required to answer these questions.
 Formulate procedure or questions, conduct tests or
experiments, create programs, do simulation and or create
prototype in order to get results or information to answer the
question.
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
 Collected data should be summarized and organized in order to
attain the objectives of the research.
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing- The collected raw data are examined to detect errors
and to correct these when possible.
2. Classification- Data are arranged in groups on the basis of
common characteristics.
3. Tabulation- An orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows to be easily understood for analysis.
Cont..
The steps in data processing:
Edit, classify and tabulate the data
Create tables, plots and figures.
Organize so that they follow a logical sequence
Prepare figures, schemes and tables in a professional manner
Discuss the data with the adviser/teacher/mentor. Note down
important points and analyze.
Data Analysis: data analysis can be done manually or using a
computer program.
Manual Data Analysis: If the number of data is small, and there
are not many variables to analyze.
Data Analysis Using a Computer: The researcher should be
familiar with the appropriate program to use.
WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 (These two sections can be combined or separated)
 After data analysis, that is results and findings are already
obtained, the next step is contextualizing the results or writing
and discussing the results.
 Results should be discussed in detail and include a healthy
discussion.
 Include schemes, photographs, figures and tables to enhance the
scope of the discussion.
 Discussion requires you to systematically compare your findings
with those done by others. Quote from these studies to show how
your findings contradict, confirm or add to them.
RECOMMENDATION
This part of the paper should answer the following questions:
What did you achieve with this research?
What are the drawbacks of your solution(s)?
What kind of future work can be done?
 In writing the conclusion and recommendation, start with positive
enthusiastic comments about your work and contribution, then
become realistic and list all the drawbacks and limitations, but
then finish on a positive note, with a clear winner statement about
the value of your contribution.
 It is important that the reader stops reading your article with
positive impression.
REPORTING THE FINDINGS
 Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step
of the research process.
 The report informs the world what you have done, what you have
discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your
findings.
 The report should be written in an academic style. Language
should be formal.
SUBMISSION
 Read the finalized paper carefully.
 Check for accuracy of figures and captions.
 Get feedback from adviser(s) and colleagues.
 The researcher or author should make every effort to make a good
presentation with proper usage of English grammar.
 “English is not my Native Language” is not a valid justification
for readers who do not comprehend and appreciate your work. You
should impart your study to the reader with “proper English”, so
you can be understood clearly. Ask help if necessary!
WRITTEN RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT
(TRADITIONAL)
 In writing a research paper, one should first develop the skeleton of
the paper/presentation.
 It includes the following:
1. Title Page
Title of the Research Project,
Name of the researcher,
Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project
submitted in partial fulfillment …
Date of Publication/Presentation
2. Dedication
 Is refers to the inscription of books or other artifacts when these
are specifically addressed or presented to a particular person.
3. Acknowledgments
 Here the researcher may acknowledge the school, sponsors,
Faculty guide-both research guide and technical guide, research
participants, friends etc.
Cont..
4. Abstract
 Wherever possible, the abstract of a research paper should include
the following six elements:
Brief summary of the problem statement of the research under
consideration;
A short list of existing solutions and what is their drawback,
from the point of view of the defined problem statement;
Essence of the proposed solution, and why it is expected to be
better under the same conditions;
What type of analysis was done to show that the proposed
solution is really better than any of the existing ones.
Cont..
 What are the major numerical highlights of the analysis (if one is an
engineer, numbers are the "name of the game").
 The language should be simple and concise, with declarative
sentence structure, written primarily in the present tense.
5. Table of Contents
 lists the contents of the report, either in chapters or in
subheadings
 Example:
Contents Page No
Chapter I Introduction 1 2
Chapter II Theoretical Framework and
Review of Related Literature 3
Chapter III Research Design 30
Chapter IV Data Analysis and Interpretation 35
Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion 70
Cont..
6. List Of Figures
 This section contains Figure Number, Description and Page Number
of all figures
 Example
Figure No. Description Page No
1 Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents 33
2 Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items 37
7. List of Tables
 This section includes Table Number, Description and Page
Number of all tables
 Example
Table No. Description Page No.
1 Income levels of Respondents 31
2 Age distribution of Respondents 35
Cont..
8. Introduction
It includes the rationale for the research.
This section also introduces the aims and objectives of the
research.
9. Problem Statement
It defines precisely the problem being attacked by the research
under consideration, and why is that problem important.
It surveys briefly the major existing solutions of this problem
from the open literature and to underline their deficiencies from
the point of view of interest for the research to be undertaken.
Cont..
It proposes a solution and why is it expected to be better than the
existing one.
It discusses the essence of the idea which is to be introduced
followed by a logical and/or philosophical discussion about the
expected benefits resulting from the idea.
10. Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
In this section, all the background research, which may be
obtained from the literature review, are included.
You must indicate from where all the information has come, so
remember to keep a complete record of everything you read.
If you do not do this, you could be accused of plagiarism, which
is a form of intellectual theft.
When you are referring to a particular book or journal article,
Harvard system is preferred, but each school has its own format.
Cont..
11. Research Design/Methodology
This section includes all practical details followed in the research .
After reading this, any interested party should be able to replicate the
research study.
The methods used for data collection, how many people took part,
how the data were chosen, what tool was used for data collection,
how data were analyzed by analytical means, simulation,
prototype, and or by implementation.
12. Results and Discussion (See previous slides)
13. Conclusion and Recommendation (See previous slides)
14. Suggestion for Further Research
It includes how the research can be continued.
Includes “more research questions or research problems which need to
be addressed”. The researcher is now aware of the wider picture of his
study. He should not try to cover up something which he feels may be
lacking in his work.
Cont..
15. List of References /Bibliography
References contain details only of those works cited in the paper.
Bibliography includes sources not cited in the paper but which
are relevant to the subject. (used for larger study such as
dissertations or thesis)
Small research projects will need only a reference section.
References only includes all the literature to which the researcher
has referred in the report.
IEEE REFERENCE FORMAT
Tip – Saving Time
You will waste a lot of time if you have to go back and find this
information later.
if you make a photocopy, check that you have the page numbers;
 if you interview someone, make a note of the date;
if you print a web page, make a note of the full web address and
the date on which you accessed it.
WHY SHOULD REFERENCES BE INCLUDED?
 It shows the range of reading the researcher has done.
 To support arguments with the opinion of acknowledged experts.
 To use data from reputable sources which make own arguments
more convincing.
 Not to be accused of plagiarism, i.e. stealing from another
person’s work.
WHEN TO USE REFERENCES?

 Whenever the researcher someone else’s work. This does not just
include words but also tables, charts, pictures, music, etc.
 When you rewrite or summarize someone else’s work in your own
words.
WHY SHOULD A DETAILED INFORMATION NEEDED IN
THE REFERENCES?
 To make it easy for someone else to follow up and trace the
materials which the researcher used.
 The reader might be led into thinking that the researcher is trying
to take credit for someone else’s work (Plagiarism).
WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN
MAKING REFERENCES?
 Keep it accurate.
 Provide all the relevant details.
 Use a consistent format for the references. This will ensure that it
is easy to locate a reference within the reading list.
WHAT ARE THE SYSTEMS USED FOR REFERENCES?
 There are well-known systems, but which the researcher use depends upon the
requirements of the Faculty, School or Department.
 The system commonly used are Harvard Referencing System and IEEE for
Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
 There are also a number of methods (including footnotes) which may be required
or acceptable on the course.
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE FULL LIST OF
REFERENCE?
1. The person(s) or organization who wrote the work.
• The author(s).
• Anyone who edited, translated or arranged the item.
2. The title
3. The subtitle
4. The publisher or publishing company
Cont..
5. The date of publication
6. The place of publication
7. The details of the item such as page numbers, type of material –
DVD, poster, computer file, etc.
8. Any additional information helpful to locate the works (such as
a web address, a catalogue number, the title of a series, etc.).
GENERAL RULES FOR FULL REFERENCES AT THE END OF
THE RESEARCH PAPER
1. Author(s)
a. Single authors
Initial(s) followed by family name. Example:
A. Noble
Cont..
b. Two authors
List the authors in the form above with “and” between them.
Example: I.S. Jacobs and C.P. Bean
c. Three or more authors
List the authors as above with commas after each family name
and “and” before the final initial. Example:
◦ G. Eason, B. Noble, and I.N. Sneddon
2. Date
•The “date of publication” should be included. Example: 1989
•If the date found on the source material comes from anywhere
other that the item’s title page, put it in square brackets. Example:
[2003]
•If it is not possible to ascertain the date put the following:
[n.d.] or [undated] or [no date].
Cont..
3. Title
The title should be copied from the item itself and should be put
in quotations.
4. Edition
If there are different editions of the work you should give details
of which edition you are using. Example:
◦ 3rd ed.
5. Place
Where appropriate, mostly for books, you should include the
city where the item was published. Example:
◦ New York
Cont..
BASIC ESSENTIALS OF A REFERENCE FROM BOOKS
Author(s) or Editor(s)
Title
Edition, Volume Number (If there is)
Publisher and Place of Publication
Date of Publication
Page Number(s)
BASIC ESSENTILAS OF A REFERENCE FROM JOURNAL

 These could include publications published annually, quarterly (4
times per year), bimonthly (every 2 months), monthly, weekly or
daily. Popular serials e.g.
Cont..
The information required when citing an article from a journal are as
follows:
Author(s) (If any)
Article Title
Journal Title
Volume (if any) and Page Number (s)
Date and month of issue
Cont..
BASIC ESSENTIALS OF A REFERENCE FROM WEBSITES
 A web page should be treated similarly to a print work, in that it
should have an author or editor and a title. Full address of the web
page and also the date of accessed should be included. Example:
G. Eason, B. Noble, and I.N. Sneddon, “On certain integrals

of Lipschitz-Hankel Type Involving Products of Bessel
Functions,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. A247, pp.
529-551, April 1955.
http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/bloom.html
[accessed 11/07/2006].
Cont..
BASIC ESSENTIALS OF A REFERENCE FROM ELECTRONIC
MATERIALS
1. Discs
 If a book or manual is on disc (either CD-ROM, DVD or some
other type of disc) it should have some of the same information as
the print equivalent. Even if there is no author or editor there
should be a title, a date, a publisher and possibly a place of
publication. It is useful to add what type of disc it is and, if
relevant, for what operating system it was designed. Example:
 A. Ahlberg, “The jolly postman's party” Oxford: Reed
Children's Books, CD-ROM
1. Part of a Disc
 An item which is part of a disc (e.g. a chapter from a compilation
disc, etc.) should be treated in the same way as part of a print
publication such as a book chapter.
Cont..
3. Computer Programs
If the computer program has an originator (or possibly corporate
originator) that should be included with the year in which this
version of the program was created, name of the program, the
version, the place of the program producer’s office, the name of
the producer and the statement that it is a computer program.
Example:
 WordPerfect Version 5.1. WordPerfect Corporation,
Orem, Utah [Computer Program].

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Adigrat University: College of Engineering and Technology

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 Borrowing a phrase from the conclusion and using it as your title

WHAT NOT TO DO IN MAKING THE TITLE?

TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

“Garbage in garbage out”

WHEN TO USE REFERENCES?

BASIC ESSENTILAS OF A REFERENCE FROM JOURNAL

G. Eason, B. Noble, and I.N. Sneddon, “On certain integrals

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