Introduction

• In the Earth’s crust there

are different movements
which cause changes in
the crust of the Earth .
• These movements are
called Tectonic
movements because they
build major landforms on
the Earth surface .
• The tectonic movements
are of 2 kinds-Horizontal
& Vertical Earth
movements.
 Vertical Movements
• Vertical movements are known as Epeirogenic
movements .
• They are continent-building movements .
• Are associated with Plate Tectonics .
• Due to this movements a section of the Earth’s crust
may rise or subside resulting in the formation of raised
plateaus or extensive shallow depression .
• The part that has risen is called the uplift & that which
has sunk is called subsidence .
• These movements are large scale and powerful , hence
are called continent building movements .
 Horizontal Movements
• They take place due to compressional or tensional forces.
• Responsible for formation of fold mountains.
• As a result of compressional forces acting in 2 opposite
directions, the crustal rocks bend and form a series of
arches & troughs.
• This is known as folding of crustal rocks that usually
occur in a zone where the crust is weak.
• The lines of fracture are known as fault.
• Due to this Earth’s surface tends to rise or sink along the
plane of fracture.
• Both process result in mountain building.
Folding and Fold Mountains
• A fold is a bend in rock strata resulting from
compression of an area of the Earth’s crust .
• The severity of compression is indicated by the
tightness of the folds.
• In folding since the compressional force is
acting towards the centre, the intervening land
rises up in a series of folds.
• The arch or anticline of the folds, alternate with
the trough or syncline of the folds.
How folds are formed?
 Types of folds
• The folds are
classified in
the following
types
depending on
the intensity
of the
compression.
 1.Symmetrical Folds
• When the
compression is too
intensive the land
gets folded into
gentle, simple folds
called as
symmetrical folds.
• Here both sides are
equally bent.
 2.Asymmetrical Fold
• When the
compressional force
is more from one
end one limb
becomes steeper
than the other .
• Such a fold is called
Asymmetrical fold.
 3.Recumbent Fold
• When one side of the
fold is pushed over the
other side the landform
is called Over fold .
• When one side is
pushed so much that it
lies positioned over the
other side , such a fold
is called Recumbent fold.
 4. Over thrust Folds
• Due to excessive
folding , a fracture is
formed ,one side of the
fold slides forward
over this fault .
• This is called Over
thrust Fold .
• The portion which
slides forward is called
Nappe .
 5. Fan Fold
• If the compression is from opposite
sides , small arch shaped folds are
formed .
• Several arch shaped folds
resembling a fan are formed .
• This is a Fan Fold .
 Fold Mountains
• The compressional force exerted on the crust
is a result of movement of earth’s plates.
• When the plates converge, the weak rocks
and sediments lying between the 2 plates get
squeezed and get folded.
• Parallel folds give rise to long chains of
parallel mountain ranges with high peaks.
• The up-folds form fold mountains while the
down folds form longitudinal valleys.
 Characteristics of Fold
Mountains
1) A fold mountain is characterized by peaks &
valleys. The tops of anticlines become the peaks &
the synclines become the valleys.
2) The fold mountain system has parallel ranges.
3) Intermont plateaus maybe found between high
ranges.
4) This system has a large no. of swift flowing
rivers, with many waterfalls & rapids.
5) This region is a region of glacier activities.
6) This is a region of sudden forces such as volcanoes
& earthquakes.
 Faulting
• Faults are large scale internal movements
causing large scale physical features especially
mountains and valleys.
• An elevated block is called block mountain.
• When rocks are pulled apart, or in opposite
direction, a tensional force is created. This
results in a crack or fault line.
 Types of Fault
• Sometimes a section of
land slides down along
the fault plane is called a
normal fault.

• When the Earth’s surface

is subjected to severe
compression along the
fault line, a portion of
rocks get pushed up &
this is called reverse fault.
 Contd…
• The second type of fault is
the reverse or thrust fault.
In this type, due to
compressional forces, the
beds on one side of the fault
plain are thrust over the
other.
• As a result, a portion of the
rocks is pushed up against
the slope of the fault plane.
• This causes the reverse or
thrust fault.
 Contd…
• The third type of fault
is the tear fault.
• In this case the blocks
on the either side of the
fault are displaced
horizontally or
sideways.
• Tear faults generally
occur during
earthquakes. E.g.. The
San Andreas Fault.
 Plate Tectonics
• It is the theory according to which the outer shell of the
Earth is made up of a number of relatively thin
lithospheric plates composing the continental & oceanic
crust .
• Each plate is capable of moving over the semi-molten
asthesnosphere , carrying oceanic and continental crust a
like .
• At the mid-oceanic ridges ,the magma cools and forms a
crust from below . This causes spreading of the sea floor
and the movement of the of the plates away from the
central ridges. This is known as constructive plate margin.
• At the other places ,such as around the periphery of the
Pacific ocean , the plates either pass or collide with each
other
 Contd….
• When a continental plate collides with the oceanic
plate it causes the oceanic plate to move down into
the mantle .This is destructive plate margin and is
marked by a deep oceanic trench .
• The six major plates are : (1) Pacific Plate
(2)Eurasian plate (3) American Plate (4) African
Plate (5) Indian Plate and (6) Antarctic Plate .
• The movement of these plates with respect to each
other throws up the fold mountains. According to
this theory the collision of Eurasian and African –
Indian continental plate about 60-30 Million years ago
squeezed geosynclinal sediments of Tethys which are
folded into Alpine –Himalayan mountain system
 Features of Faulting
• The tensional features
which cause faulting may be
both due to compression &
tension or tension alone.
• If the force is moderate only
cracks may appear in the
rocks.
• The displacement that
occurs results in formation • The plane along which the rock
of faults.
blocks are displaced is called the
• Such fractures are divided
into- 1)Joints & 2)Faults.
Fault plane.
• A joint is a fracture where a • Like folds, faults are of various
rock seems to be joined types depending on how they
together without any occur.
movement & it may become
a fault when displacement
takes place.
 Main Features of Faulting
1. Faults rarely occur singly but a no. of these may
be parallel.
2. Fault blocks: the elevated or subsided masses of
rocks are called fault blocks. These fold blocks
may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
3. Horst: an individual fault block which is sharply
defined with respect to the surrounding rock
strata is called Horst.
4. Rift Valley: it is the reverse of a horst. A single
fault in the same orientation is called a rift valley.
A rift valley is a major relief feature of faulting.
Rift valleys are long & narrow troughs bounded
by one or more parallel normal faults. They are
also very deep.
 Landforms Of Faulting

Rift Valley

Block Mountains
 Rift Valley
• Major relief feature of Faulting Activity is
Rift Valley.
• Formation : A Rift Valley may be formed
in two ways : (1) When the middle portion
between two normal faults is dropped
downward the sides remain stable.
• (2) When the middle portion remains
stable and the two sides are raised upward
.
 Contd….
• They are also known as Graben.
• These valleys have flat bottoms and steep
sides .E.g.- Jordan Valley , Great Rift Valley
of East Africa .
• Some Rift valleys have become lakes .E.g.-
Lake Nyasa ,Lake Rudolf ,Dead Sea.
• The Rhine Rift Valley in Europe is bounded
by Vosages and Hardt Mountains .It is a
fine example of the Rift Valley caused by
Faulting.
• In India the Narmada Valley, Damodar
Valley, Tapi valley are example of the Rift
valley.
 Block Mountains
• Block mountain is another
important feature of Faulting
caused by the Tensional features in
the Earth’s crust .
• The mechanism of formation of
Block mountains is same as the
Rift valley.
• The Block mountains as in the case
of the Rhine valley ,are often found
on the sides of the Rift valley. It is
because the land between two
parallel faults is either subsides to
form a Rift valley or rises to form
Block mountains .
 Contd….
• Characteristics of Block mountains – flat tops, flat
bottoms on sides and steep fault scrap .
• The Vosges in France and the Black Forest
mountains in Germany are examples of the Block
mountains .
• Other Block mountains – Salt Rang in Pakistan,
the Vindhyas and the Satpuras in India are
examples of Block mountains .They enclose
between them the Rift valleys.
• The Fault Blocks with sharp features are known as
Horsts.
• The Vosges and the Black Forest are e.g. of Horsts.
Flat top
 Distribution of Folded and Faulted
Landforms
• The fold mountains of various periods are found almost in
every continent .Almost all of them are arranges in long lines
and interlinked extending through oceans .
• The Alpine-Himalayan system extends from the strait of
Gibraltar through the Mediterranean Basin , Asia Minor to
India and South –East Asia.
• The Circum –Pacific system comprises of Andes ,the North
American cordillera & Island arcs .These two system meet
north of Australia .
• These two system are the main systems from where various
branches extend in different directions .These are said to have
existed as geosynclines some 50 – 60 million years ago .
THANK YOU