Mobile Communication

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

 Frequencies  Spread spectrum

 Signals  Modulation
 Signal propagation Path Loss
Multiplexing Diversity
Propagation Models

1
 Frequencies for communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:

 = c/f
wave length , speed of light c  3x10 m/s, frequency f
8

2
 Frequencies for mobile communication

 VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

– simple, small antenna for cars
– deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
– small antenna
– large bandwidth available
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
– some systems planned up to EHF
– limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
• weather dependent : signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

3
 Signals

 physical representation of data

 signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
 classification
– continuous time/discrete time
– continuous values/discrete values
– analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
– digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
 signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift 
– sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

4
 Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
– communication possible
– low error rate
Detection range
sender
– detection of the signal
possible
transmission
– no communication
possible distance
detection
Interference range
– signal may not be interference
detected
– signal adds to the
background noise

5
 Signal propagation

Receiving power is proportional to 1/d² in vacuum (d = distance between sender and

receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
 fading (frequency dependent)
 shadowing
 reflection at large obstacles
 refraction depending on the density of a medium
 scattering at small obstacles
 diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refractio scattering diffraction

n
6
 Multipath propagation

Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

 interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
 distortion occurrence

7
 Effects of mobility

Channel characteristics change over time and location

– signal paths change
– different delay variations of different signal parts
– different phases of signal parts
– distance to sender
long term
 quick changes in the power power
fading

received (short term fading)

 slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
t
short term fading

8
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
– space (si)
– time (t)
– frequency (f)
– code (c)

Goal: multiple use of a shared medium

Important: guard spaces needed!

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 Frequency multiplex

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
 no dynamic coordination
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
necessary
c
 for analog signals
f

Disadvantages:
 waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
 inflexible
t
 guard spaces

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 Time multiplex

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

Advantages:
 only one carrier in the
medium at any time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 throughput high even
for many users c
f
Disadvantages:
 precise
synchronization
necessary
t

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 Time and frequency multiplex
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
– better protection against
tapping
– protection against frequency
selective interference k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
but: precise coordination
required f

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 Code multiplex

Each channel has a unique code k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time c
Advantages:
– bandwidth efficient
– no coordination and synchronization necessary
– good protection against interference and
tapping f
Implemented using spread spectrum technology

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 Modulation

Digital modulation
– digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
– ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
– differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
– shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Basic schemes
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)

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 Modulation and demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier

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 Digital modulation
1 0 1
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): t
– very simple
– low bandwidth requirements 1 0 1
– very susceptible to interference

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): t

– needs larger bandwidth

1 0 1
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
– more complex
t
– robust against interference

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 Spread spectrum technology
Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out
narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code
protection against narrow band interference

power
interference spread signal power signal
spread
interference
detection at
receiver

f f
protection against narrowband interference

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

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 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I
XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
– many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages tb
– reduces frequency selective
user data
fading
– in cellular networks 0 1
XOR
• base stations can use the tc
same frequency range chipping
• several base stations can sequence
detect and recover the signal 01101010110101 =
• soft handover resulting
Disadvantages signal

– precise power control necessary 01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period

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 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver

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 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

– sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence
Two versions
– Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
– Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
– frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
– simple implementation
– uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
– not as robust as DSSS
– simpler to detect

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 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

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FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver

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 Pathloss

• Received power of a sender

– Is decreasing with distance
– Depends on Frequency

• Many Models, e.g.

– Okumura-Hata
– Walfish-Ikegami
– UMTS 30.03

Mostly shown in dB (attenuation)

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 Diversity

• Diversity refers to a method for improving the reliability of a

message signal by using two or more communication channels with
different characteristics.
• Diversity is mainly used in radio communication and is a common
technique for combating fading and co-channel interference and
avoiding error bursts.
• For reliable transmission over fading channels, diversity is required
– Time diversity: Transmission using multiple time slots separated
by at least the coherence time.
– Frequency diversity: Transmission using multiple frequency
channels separated by at least the coherence bandwidth.
– Space diversity: Transmission using multiple transmit/receive
antennas.
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 Space Diversity

• Terminology:
– Single-input, single-output (SISO) channel
• No space diversity
– Single-input, multiple-output (SIMO) channel
• Receive diversity
– Multiple-input, single-output (MISO) channel
• Transmit diversity
– Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) channel
• Combined transmit and receive diversity

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 Space Diversity

(a) Receive Diversity

(b) Transmit Diversity
(c) transmit and receive diversity.

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 Diversity combining

• Selection combining:
Of the N received signals, the strongest signal is selected

• Equal-gain combining:
All the received signals are summed coherently.

• Maximal-ratio combining
It is often used in large phased-array systems: The received signals
are weighted with respect to their SNR and then summed.

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 Outline

• Mobile Radio Channel

• Diversity
• Radio Propagation Models

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 Radio propagation model

• A radio propagation model, also known as the Radio Wave

Propagation Model or the Radio Frequency Propagation Model, is
an empirical mathematical formulation for the characterization of
radio wave propagation as a function of frequency, distance and
other conditions.
• A single model is usually developed to predict the behavior of
propagation for all similar links under similar constraints.
• Created with the goal of formalizing the way radio waves are
propagated from one place to another, such models typically
predict the path loss along a link or the effective coverage area of
a transmitter.

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 Radio propagation model cont

Characteristics
• As the path loss encountered along any radio link serves as the dominant
factor for characterization of propagation for the link, radio propagation
models typically focus on realization of the path loss with the auxiliary task
of predicting the area of coverage for a transmitter or modeling the
distribution of signals over different regions.
• Because each individual telecommunication link has to encounter different
terrain, path, obstructions, atmospheric conditions and other phenomena, it
is intractable to formulate the exact loss for all telecommunication systems
in a single mathematical equation.
• As a result, different models exist for different types of radio links under
different conditions. The models rely on computing the median path loss
for a link under a certain probability that the considered conditions will
occur.
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 Radio propagation model cont

Development methodology
• Radio propagation models are empirical in nature, which means,
they are developed based on large collections of data collected for
the specific scenario.
• For any model, the collection of data has to be sufficiently large to
provide enough likeliness (or enough scope) to all kind of situations
that can happen in that specific scenario.
• Radio propagation models do not point out the exact behavior of a
link, rather, they predict the most likely behavior the link may
exhibit under the specified conditions.

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 Radio propagation model cont

Variations
• Different models have been developed to meet the needs of realizing
the propagation behavior in different conditions. Types of models
for radio propagation include:
• Models for indoor applications
• Models for outdoor applications
– Ground wave propagation models
– Sky wave propagation models
– Environmental Attenuation models
– Point-to-Point propagation models
– Terrain models
– City Models
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 Radio propagation model cont

We will focus our discussion on city models:

• City models
– Okumura Model
– Hata Model for Urban Areas
– Hata Model for Suburban Areas
– Hata Model for Open Areas
– COST Hata model
– Area to Area Lee Model
– Point to Point Lee Model

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 Okumura model

• The Okumura model for urban areas is a Radio propagation model that
was built using the data collected in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is
ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not many tall
blocking structures. The model served as a base for the Hata Model.
• Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban, suburban
and open areas. The model for urban areas was built first and used as the
base for others.
COVERAGE
• Frequency = 150–1920 MHz
• Mobile station antenna height: between 1 m and 10 m
• Base station antenna height: between 30 m and 1000 m
• Link distance: between 1 km and 100 km

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 Okumura model cont

Mathematical formulation
• The Okumura model is formally expressed as:

• where,
• L = The median path loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)
• LFSL = The free space loss. Unit: decibel (dB)
• AMU = Median attenuation. Unit: decibel (dB)
• HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.
• HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
• Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of environment, water surfaces,
isolated obstacle etc.)
• Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in
urban areas. This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150–1920 MHz
(although it is typically extrapolated up to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1–100 km.
It can be used for base-station antenna heights ranging from 30–1000 m.

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 Hata Model

• The term Hata Model refers to a radio propagation model that is

based on the Okumura Model. It has separate models for varying
environments:
• Hata Model for Urban Areas
• Hata Model for Suburban Areas
• Hata Model for Open Areas

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 Hata model for urban areas

• In wireless communication, the Hata model for urban areas, also

known as the Okumura–Hata model for being a developed version
of the Okumura model, is the most widely used radio frequency
propagation model for predicting the behaviour of cellular
transmissions in built up areas.
• This model incorporates the graphical information from Okumura
model and develops it further to realize the effects of diffraction,
reflection and scattering caused by city structures.
• Hata Model predicts the total path loss along a link of
terrestrial microwave or other type of cellular communications.

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 Hata model for urban areas cont

Coverage
• Frequency: 150–1500 MHz
• Mobile Station Antenna Height: 1–10 m
• Base station Antenna Height: 30–200 m
• Link distance: 1–10 km.

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 Hata model for urban areas cont

Mathematical Formulation

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 Hata model for urban areas cont

Limitation:
• Though based on the Okumura model, the Hata model does not provide coverage to
the whole range of frequencies covered by Okumura model.
• Hata model does not go beyond 1500 MHz while Okumura provides support for up
to 1920 MHz.

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 Hata model for suburban areas

Applicable to/under conditions

• This particular version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions just out of
the cities and on rural areas where man-made structures are there but not so high
and dense as in the cities. To be more precise, this model is suitable where buildings
exist, but the mobile station does not have a significant variation of its height.
• This model is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast transmission

Coverage:
• Frequency: 150 MHz – 1.50 GHz
• This model is based on Hata model for urban areas and uses the median path loss
from urban areas.

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Hata model for suburban areas cont

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 Hata model for open areas

• The Hata model for open areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata model
from its origins in the Okumura model, is the most widely used model for
predicting the behavior of cellular radio transmissions in open areas.

Applicable to/under conditions

• This version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions in open areas
where no obstructions block the transmission link.
• It is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast transmissions.
Coverage
• Frequency: 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz

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Hata model for open areas cont

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 COST Hata model
• The COST Hata model is a radio propagation model that extends the urban Hata
model (which in turn is based on the Okumura model) to cover a more elaborated
range of frequencies.
• It is the most often cited of the COST 231 models (EU funded research project ca.
April 1986 – April 1996), also called the Hata Model PCS Extension.
• COST (COopération européenne dans le domaine de la recherche Scientifique et
Technique) is a European Union Forum for cooperative scientific research which
has developed this model accordingly to various experiments and researches.
Applicable to / under conditions
• This model is applicable to urban areas. To further evaluate Path Loss in Suburban
or Rural Quasi-open/Open Areas, this path loss has to be substituted into Urban to
Rural/Urban to Suburban Conversions. (Ray GAO, 09 Sep 2007)
Coverage
• Frequency: 1500–2000 MHz
• Mobile station antenna height: 1–10 m
• Base station Antenna height: 30–200 m
• Link distance: 1–20 km
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COST Hata model cont

46
 COST Hata model cont

Point To Note:
• The European Co-operative for Scientific and Technical research (EUROCOST)
formed the COST-231 working committee to develop an extended version of the
Hata model.
• COST-231 proposed the following formula to extend Hata's model to 2 GHz. The
proposed model for path loss is

L50(urban) = 46.3 + 33.9 log fc – 13.82 log hte – a (hre) + (44.9 –

6.55 log hte) log d + Cm
where a(hre) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a
function of the size of the coverage area.
Limitations
• This model requires that the base station antenna is higher than all
adjacent rooftops.

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 Standard Propagation Model (SPM)

• The standard propagation model is a model (deduced from the Hata

formula) particularly suitable for predication in the
150MHz~3500MHz band over long distance (1Km<d<20Km) and is
very adapted to GSM900/1800, UMTS, CDMA2000, WiMAX and
LTE technologies.
• This model uses the terrain profile, diffraction mechanisms
(calculated in several ways) and take into account clutter classes and
effective antenna heights in order to calculate path loss.
• The model may be used for any technology; it is based on the
following formula:

48
Standard Propagation Model (SPM) cont

49
 Standard Propagation Model (SPM) cont

• The standard propagation model can be used for propagation model

calibration through CW (Continuous Wave) test by using simulation
tools.
Some rough steps for simulation
• Import digital maps of that terrain where you want to install a site.
• Adjust the clutter constants
• May adjust the antenna parameters etc

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Propagation Model Frequency Range Advantages Disadvantages

Free Space Pathloss Any NA It assumes ideal conditions with

Model no obstacles to cause diffraction
or reflection
Okumura Upto 1920 MHz but Simple to use. It is good for urban and FSPL equation is used with
can be extended to sub urban areas. It can be used for city some correction factors. Slow
3000 MHz. with many urban structures. response to rapid changes in
terrain. It is not good for rural
areas. Can not be used for very
tall buildings.
Okumura Hata Upto 1520 MHz. Include the effects of scattering, It can not be used in for higher
reflection, diffraction caused by the frequency range
buildings of city.

Cost Hata Upto 2000 MHz It includes correction factors for urban,
sub urban and rural environments and
simplicity.
SUI Above 1900 MHz Introduction of pathloss exponent, fading
standard deviation. Different propagation
constants for different terrains
WI Model Above 1900 MHz More precise pathloss. Additional
parameters which characterized different
environment e.g. diffraction angle, inter
building distance etc
Ericsson Upto 1900MHz Various parameters are given for urban,
sub urban and rural environments.
SPM 2100 MHz The prorogation constants can be tuned
according to any area. Clutter loss of that
specific area can be incorporated.
It can be used for BS height >
30m or higher than adjacent
structures. It should not be used
for short distances where
Pathloss is dependent on
surrounding structures.
Not good for dense urban.
Localized list of parameters
according to topography not
available.
Only suitable for city with
uniform building height.
Localized list of parameters
according to topography not
available.
Tuning requires purchase of
planning tool Like ATOLL,
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ASET, DT tool like TEMS