Multiplexing

Multiplexing in 4 dimensions channels ki

 space (si) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 time (t)
 frequency (f) c
 code (c) t c
t
Goal: multiple use s1
of a shared medium f
s2
f
c
Important: guard spaces needed!
t

s3
f
Frequency multiplex

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
 no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 works also for analog signals
c
f
Disadvantages:
 waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
 inflexible
 guard spaces
t
Time multiplex

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

Advantages:
 only one carrier in the
medium at any time
 throughput high even
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
c
Disadvantages:
f
 precise
synchronization
necessary

t
 Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods

A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
 better protection against
tapping
 protection against frequency
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
selective interference
 higher data rates compared to
c
code multiplex
f
but: precise coordination
required

t
Code multiplex

Each channel has a unique code

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
c
Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 no coordination and synchronization
necessary
 good protection against interference and
tapping f
Disadvantages:
 lower user data rates
 more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum

technology t
 Modulation

Digital modulation
 digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
 ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
 differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation
 shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
 smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 medium characteristics

Basic schemes
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)
Modulation and demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier
 Digital modulation

Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): 1 0 1
 very simple
 low bandwidth requirements
 very susceptible to interference t

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): 1 0 1

 needs larger bandwidth

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

 more complex
 robust against interference
t
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

 bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between

the carrier frequencies
 special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
 MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
 bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
 depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
 the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
 Equivalent to offset QPSK

 even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass

filter  GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0 1 0 1
even bits odd 0 0 1 1

odd bits signal hnnh

value - - + +

low h: high frequency

frequency n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency

MSK
signal
t

No phase shifts!
Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying): Q

 bit value 0: sine wave

 bit value 1: inverted sine wave I
1 0
 very simple PSK
 low spectral efficiency
10 Q 11
 robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
 2 bits coded as one symbol I
 symbol determines shift of sine wave
 needs less bandwidth compared to 00 01
BPSK
A
 more complex

Often also transmission of relative, not

absolute phase shift: DQPSK - t
Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
11 10 00 01
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and

phase modulation
 it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
 bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes

Q
0001Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
0010

0011
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase φ,
0000
but different
φ
amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have different
phase, buta same amplitude.
I
 used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
1000
Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out

narrow band signals for duration of the interference

Solution: spread narrow band signal into broad band signal using special code

power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver

protection against narrowband

f interference f

Side effects:
 coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
 tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df dP/df

user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver
Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal

channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1

spread frequency
spectrum
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

 many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
 reduces frequency selective tb
fading
user data
 in cellular networks
 base stations can use the 0 1 XOR
same frequency range tc
 several base stations can chipping
detect and recover the signal sequence
 soft handover 01101010110101 =
Disadvantages resulting
 precise power control necessary signal
01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence

receiver
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence
Two versions
 Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
 simple implementation
 uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages
 not as robust as DSSS
 simpler to detect
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequenc
transmitter e

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequenc synthesizer
e receiver