Communication links

Two types of “links”:

 point-to-point
 PPP for dial-up access
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
 broadcast (shared wire or wireless medium)
 old-fashioned Ethernet
 upstream in Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) network
 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)
Multiple access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes on the
shared channel  interference
 collision if a node receives two or more signals that overlap
fully or partially in time domain  packet loss

Multiple (or medium) Access Control (MAC) protocol

 Algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e.,
determines when a node can transmit
 Communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
 no out-of-band channel for coordination
 E.g., 802.3 and 802.11MAC
An ideal multiple access protocol
given: broadcast channel of data rate R bps
desiderable:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average
rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple
MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
 channel partitioning
 divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code)
 allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 random access
 channel not divided, allow collisions
 “recover” from collisions
 “taking turns”
 nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer
turns
 Time multiplex
A channel (assigned to one user) gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time.

Advantages:
 only one carrier in the
medium at any time
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

Disadvantages:
 precise synchronization required c
 Guard bands in time domain f
to avoid interference due to
delay spread of channel

6
TDMA: time division multiple access

 access to channel in "rounds"

 each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt
trans time) in each round
 How many users it supports?
 unused slots go idle
 Example: 6-station TDMA LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

 Fixed TDMA vs Dynamic TDMA slot allocation

Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands. A channel/user gets
a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time.

Advantages:
 loose coordination
 Simple
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
c
Disadvantages: f
 wastage of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
 inflexible
 guard spaces to avoid
interference

8
 FDMA: frequency division multiple access

 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands

 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 How many users it supports?
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
 example: 6-station FDMA LAN, 1,3,4 have pkts, frequency
bands 2,5,6 idle

frequency bands

FDM cable
Time and frequency multiplex
Combination of both methods.
 A channel/user gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time.
 Example: GSM (2G)
 Advantages:
 more flexibility
 But: very precise coordination
required k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
 How many users it supports?
f

10
GSM Frequencies
 Originally designed on 900MHz range, now also available on
800MHz, 1800MHz and 1900 MHz ranges.
 Separate Uplink and Downlink frequencies
ARFCN for GSM Systems

ARFCN: Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number is a unique number

given to each radio channel in GSM
TDMA/FDD Example: GSM

• F dl = F ul + 45 MHz to avoid adjacent channel interference

• Handset is assigned both uplink and downlink channels, but half-duplex and
hence uplink and downlink frames are time-shifted to be able to assign
same slot in both directions.
• Some slots are reserved for Signaling. 20 MHz is kept for Guarding.
• Each GSM frame of 4.615 ms contains 8 slots of 577 microsec each
carrying 114 info bits. GMSK: one bit per symbol
• 124*8 slots (channels) for communication of user data and signaling msgs
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GSM Downlink & Uplink Frames

Offset of 3 slots so that MN getting same uplink & downlink slot #

need not to tx and rx at the same time  effectively half-duplex
like in Wi-Fi, reduction in handset cost
Source: http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/gsm-specs.htm
GSM Channels

 Physical Channel: Each timeslot (aka burst period) on a carrier per

TDMA frame is referred to as a physical channel
 Logical Channel: Variety of information is transmitted between the
MS and BTS on physical channels.
Different types of logical channels:
 Traffic channel
 Control Channel
Use of Slots in Downlink & Uplink

http://www.sharetechnote.com/html/FrameStructure_GSM.html
Mixed GSM/GPRS Timeslot Usage
Example of one static allocation of slots in a TDMA Frame
 TS0-TS1: GSM/GPRS signaling
 TS2: GSM calls
 TS3-6: GPRS sessions
 TS7: GSM calls

Operator can also dynamically change slot allocation for GSM

and GPRS traffic
 TDMA/TDD Example: DECT

• DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications; works in unlicensed bands (1.88 to 1.9MHz)
• DECT is the second most successfully ETSI standard after GSM (73% market share)
• Frame length is 10 ms having 24 slots, half-duplex thru TDD
• Supports Voice/Data: GFSK, 4/8PSK, 16/64 QAM
• How many users does it support simultaneously?
• Intercom b/w DECT basestations, conference b/w phones, multi-lane
http://www.etsi.org/technologies-clusters/technologies/dect 17
Comparison
TDMA/FDD TDMA/TDD
 E.g., GSM (WWAN)  DECT
 Same frame structure for  In a frame, some (e.g., half)
both D/L and U/L slots for D/L and rest for U/L
 D/L and U/L on different  D/L and U/L on same carrier
carrier frequencies frequency
 GSM uses lower frequencies
for U/L to reduce tx power
of handset and get better U/L
SNR
 Code multiplex
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

Each user has a unique code aka spreading code

All users use the same spectrum at the same time c

 Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 good protection against interference and
eavesdropping
 Disadvantage: f
 more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum technology,

Used in 3G systems
t
 Space Multiplex
 Unlike previous schemes
which use omni-directional
antennas, SDMA uses
directional antennas to
cover angular regions
 Different regions can be
served using same
frequency
 Spectrum reuse is achieved
 Used popularly in cellular
systems & satellite
networks

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Comparison of SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal can all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, directed synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully
capacity per km²
Dis- inflexible, antennas
advantages typically fixed
Comment used in all cellular
systems
simple, established, flexible, less frequency
digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
handover
guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
standard in fixed typically combined higher complexity
networks, together with TDMA
with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping
used in many patterns) and SDMA
mobile networks (frequency reuse)

In practice, several access methods are used in combination

Example :SDMA/TDMA/FDMA for GSM
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Random access protocols
 when node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”,
 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
 examples of random access MAC protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD (Ethernet), CSMA/CA (Wi-Fi)
CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)

CSMA: listen before transmit:

if channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
 if channel sensed busy, defer transmission

 human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes

 collisions can still occur:

propagation delay means
two nodes may not hear
each other’s
transmission
 collision: entire packet
transmission time
wasted
 distance & propagation
delay play role in in
determining collision
probability
CSMA/CD (collision detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage
 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare
transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N
bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node!
random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel
 high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
polling:
 master node “invites”
slave nodes to transmit data
in turn poll
 typically used with
“dumb” slave devices master
 concerns: data

 polling overhead
 latency
 single point of slaves
failure (master)
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
token passing:
T
 control token passed
from one node to next
sequentially.
 token message (nothing
 concerns: to send)
 token overhead T
 latency
 single point of failure
(token)

data
“Taking turns” MAC protocols

Bluetooth:
 Master controls the
channel access by salves
 Up to 7 active salves
 Polling by Master
Summary of MAC protocols
 channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
 Time Division, Frequency Division
 random access (dynamic),
 ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
 carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
in others (wireless)
 CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
 CSMA/CA used in 802.11 (discussed later in course)
 taking turns
 polling from central site, token passing
 Bluetooth, FDDI, token ring
Readings

 Schiller book: Ch 3
 Kurose and Ross book: MAC chapter
 Reading Material Section on Google Classroom
 Random_Access_Techniques_for_Data_Transmission_over_Packet_Sw
itched_Radio_Channels.pdf

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