Mobile Communications

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

 Frequencies  Multiplexing
 Signals  Spread spectrum
 Antenna  Modulation
 Signal propagation  Cellular systems
Frequencies for communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f
Frequencies for mobile communication

 VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

 simple, small antenna for cars
 deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
 small antenna, beam forming
 large bandwidth available
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
 some systems planned up to EHF
 limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
 weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall
etc.
 Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands

worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Europe USA Japan
Cellular GSM 450-457, 479- AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC
Phones 486/460-467,489- 824-849, 810-826,
496, 890-915/935- 869-894 940-956,
960, TDMA, CDMA, GSM 1429-1465,
1710-1785/1805- 1850-1910, 1477-1513
1880 1930-1990
UMTS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
Cordless CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, 1930- PHS
Phones 932 1990 1895-1918
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930 JCT
864-868 254-380
DECT
1880-1900
Wireless IEEE 802.11 902-928 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483 IEEE 802.11 2471-2497
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350, 5470- 5150-5350, 5725-5825
5725
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868
Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
 communication possible
 low error rate

Detection range
 detection of the signal
possible
 no communication sender
possible
Interference range transmission
 signal may not be distance
detected detection
 signal adds to the
interference
background noise
Signal propagation

In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are

reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface,
whose size is much larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a
solid wall.
Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner,
whose size is larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of
a wall.
Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size
smaller than the wavelength of the signal.
Multipath propagation

Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

One consequence of multipath propagation is that multiple copies of a

signal propagation along multiple different paths, arrive at any point at
different times. So the signal received at a point is not only affected by
the inherent noise, distortion, attenuation, and dispersion in the
channel but also the interaction of signals propagated along multiple
paths.
Multiplexing
The multiplexing refers to a method channels ki

which aims at combining multiple k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

signals into one signal such that each
user would be able to extract its desired c

data upon receiving the multiplexed t c

signal.  t
s1
f
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions s2
f
 space (si)
c
 time (t)
t
 frequency (f)
 code (c)
s3
f
Goal: multiple use
of a shared medium
Frequency multiplex

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
 no dynamic coordination
necessary k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 works also for analog signals
c
f
Disadvantages:
 waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
 inflexible
 guard spaces
t
Time multiplex

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

Advantages:
 only one carrier in the
medium at any time
 throughput high even k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
c
Disadvantages: f
 precise
synchronization
necessary

t
Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods

A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM

Advantages:
 better protection against
tapping k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 protection against frequency
selective interference c
 higher data rates compared to f
code multiplex
but: precise coordination
required

t
Code multiplex

Each channel has a unique code

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
c
Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 no coordination and synchronization
necessary
 good protection against interference and
tapping f
Disadvantages:
 lower user data rates
 more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum t

technology
Modulation

Digital modulation
 digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
 ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
 differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation
 shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
 smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 medium characteristics

Basic schemes
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)
Modulation and demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier
Digital modulation

Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): 1 0 1
 very simple
 low bandwidth requirements
t
 very susceptible to interference

1 0 1
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
 needs larger bandwidth
t

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

 more complex
 robust against interference
t
Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe

out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: Spread spectrum technology spreads the narrow band signal
into a wide band signal using a special code
1. protection against narrow band interference
2. provision for privacy

power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver

Side effects: f f

 coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination

 tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

 many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
 reduces frequency selective tb
fading
user data
 in cellular networks
0 1 XOR
 base stations can use the
same frequency range tc
 several base stations can chipping
detect and recover the signal sequence
01101010110101 =
 soft handover

Disadvantages resulting
signal
 precise power control necessary
01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number
sequence
Two versions
 Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
 simple implementation
 uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages
 not as robust as DSSS
 simpler to detect
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

 Cellular System
• Design of wireless cellular system considers cell dividing concept.
• Total geographical area is divided into smaller areas.
• In cellular wireless communication, a unique arrangement of cellular
array is used with low power transmitter to each cell instead of single
base station with high power transmitter.
• Variable power levels allows cells to be sized according to the
subscriber density and demand within a particular region.
• To increase capacity, cellular wireless systems use frequency reuse
techniques. Channels used in one cell can be reused in another cell
located at some distance.
• Cellular system is limited by interference
Cell structure

• In cellular structure, a given geographical area is divided into subareas

each known as a cell.
• A cell is an area of coverage under a single base station.
• Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
• Essence of cellular network is use of multiple low power transmitters of
order of 100 watts or less.
• A cell is assigned a band of frequencies and is served by a base
station consisting of Trans-receiving system and control unit.

• Extension of coverage area of base station depends on several factors:

• Base transmitting output power
• Frequency band of operation
• Antenna height and location
• Antenna type
• Terrain geography
• Receiver sensitivity
Cell structure
• Advantages of cell structures:
 higher capacity, higher number of users.(frequency reuse)
 less transmission power needed
 more robust, decentralized
 base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

• Problems:
 fixed network needed for the base stations
 handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
 interference with other cells
Shape of Cell

If shape of cell is Uniform Square then,

• It has 4 neighboring cells at distance d and 4 neighboring cells at
distance √2d.
d √2d

√3R

• Ideally hexagonal cells are considered since they provide signals

equally from equidistant antennas in the neighboring cells.
• For a cell of radius R, distance between cell center and each adjacent
cell center is d = √3R
 Shape of Cell
• Omnidirectional cell :
• Base Station antenna is omni-directional i.e. antenna which transmits
equal power in all directions, forming an approximate circular coverage
area

• Sector Cell:
• Base station in each cell is equipped with a directive antenna.
• Cell can be divided into several sectors.

• Cell cluster :
• A group of cells with different frequencies is known as a cluster.
• Different standards for clustering
• 4 cell cluster with all omni-directional cells
• 7 cell cluster with all omni-directional cells
• 12 cell cluster with all omni-directional cells
• 21 cell cluster with 7 base stations, each base station associated with 3
sector cell .
Frequency Reuse

• Frequency reuse means simultaneous use of same frequency in

different distinct sets of cells.
• The distance between the cells of same frequency is limited by
maximum co-channel interference allowed in the system.
• Adjacent cells having same frequency are called as co-channel cells.
• Space between adjacent co-channels is filled with cells having
different frequency to maintain frequency isolation
• Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5 f2
• Fixed frequency assignment: f4 f6 f5
 certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell. f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
 problem: different traffic load in different cells. f2
• Dynamic frequency assignment:
 base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
 more capacity in cells with more traffic
 assignment can also be based on interference measurements
Frequency Reuse

f3 f3 f3
f2 f2 f2 f3 f7
f1 f1 f1 f5 f2
f3 f3 f4 f6 f5
f2 f2 f2
3 cell cluster f1 f4 7 cell cluster
f1 f1 f3 f7 f1
f3 f3 f3 f2 f3
f6 f5 f2

f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
3 h
h1 2
3 h
h1 2
3 3 cell cluster
g 2 h3 g2 h3 g2
g1
g3
g1
g3
g 1
g3
with 3 sector antennas
Cell breathing

CDM systems: cell size depends on current load

Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells