Professional Documents
Culture Documents
03/08/2019 1
Goals of the Chapter
Multiple users sharing the same medium
Single shared broadcast channel
03/08/2019 2
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
03/08/2019 3
Several Transmitters?
What happens when there are
several transmitter/receiver pairs?
Transmissions of “wrong” transmitter
disturb receiver! Interference
Effects of interference are
comparable to narrowband noise
Extend signal to noise ratio to signal to noise & interference ratio
(SINR)
In dB:
03/08/2019 5
Multiplexing
Multiplexing: Allowing many (mobile) users to share a
given resources
For high quality communications, this must be done without
severe degradation in the performance of the system
Focus is for Wireless Communication
03/08/2019 6
Multiplexing
channels ki
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
k1 k3 k4 k5 k6
Space (si)
Time (t) k2
Frequency (f) t c
Code (c) c
t
s1
Goal: multiple use f
s2
of a shared medium f
c
t
Important: Guard spaces needed!
In all dimensions
s3
f
Types
Static vs. dynamic multiplexing
03/08/2019 7
Multiplexing – Time, Frequency, and Code
8
Multiplexing – Spatial
03/08/2019 9
Multiplexing – Example ALOHA
ALOHA is a dynamic multiplexing used in packet radio
03/08/2019 10
Multiplexing – Wireless Systems
03/08/2019 11
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
4 dimensions: Spatial, time, & frequency multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time and frequency multiplexing
Spread spectrum techniques
Code division multiplexing
03/08/2019 12
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of
time
Advantages:
Only one carrier in the
medium at any time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Throughput high
at high utilization c
f
Disadvantages:
Precise
synchronization
necessary
Long delays
t
at low utilization
03/08/2019 13
Time Division Multiplexing …
A single carrier frequency is shared with several users
Each user makes use of non-overlapping timeslots
In each time slot, only one user is allowed to either transmit
or receive
I.e., transmission for any user is non-continuous
Synchronous TDM
Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slots and static
allocation
Asynchronous TDM
Allow different number of time slots for separate user and statistical
multiplexing
03/08/2019 14
Components of TDM Frame
Preamble: Address and synchronization information
In cellular system, for base station and subscriber identification
Guard times: Synchronization of receivers between
different slots and frames
03/08/2019 15
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
4 dimensions: Spatial, time, & frequency multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time and frequency multiplexing
Spread spectrum techniques
Code division multiplexing
03/08/2019 16
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands
A user gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole
time
Advantages: k 1 k2 k3 k
4 k
5 k6
No dynamic coordination c
necessary f
Works also for analog
signals
Disadvantages:
Waste of bandwidth
if traffic is unevenly
distributed
Inflexible t
Guard spaces
03/08/2019 17
Frequency Division Multiplexing …
Frequency spectrum is divided into unique frequency
bands or channels
These channels are assigned to users on demand
Multiple users cannot share a channel
03/08/2019 19
Frequency Division Multiplexing – Properties
The bandwidth of FDM channels is narrow
About 30 KHz since it supports only one call/ carrier
ISI is low since the symbol time is large compared to
average delay spread
No equalization is required
03/08/2019 20
Time and Frequency Multiplexing
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
Protection against frequency k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
selective interference
Higher data rates compared to c
code multiplex f
But: precise
coordination
required t
03/08/2019 21
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
4 dimensions: Spatial, time, & frequency multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time and frequency multiplexing
Spread spectrum techniques
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Code division multiplexing
03/08/2019 22
Spread Spectrum Techniques
Idea: “Spread” signal to a wider bandwidth than is actually
necessary to avoid short, frequency-selective distortions
One form of frequency diversity exploitation
Can be channel fading, but also narrowband interference
f f
Main implementation
options
1. Frequency Hopping
2. Direct Sequence (is the basis for CDMA)
Common drawbacks: Strict time synchronization & power
control needed (see later)
03/08/2019 23
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Discrete changes of carrier frequency
Sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random
number sequence
Additional “hopping” increases the required bandwidth
Two versions
Fast Hopping: several frequency hops per user bit
Slow Hopping: several user bits per hop
Advantages
Fading and interference limited to short period
Simple implementation
Uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
Not as robust as Direct Sequence
03/08/2019 24
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum …
tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3
slow
hopping
(3
f21
bits/hop
t )
f td
f3
fast
hopping
(3
f21
hops/bit
t )
03/08/2019 25
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum …
narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data modulator signal
modulator
frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
Transmitter
narrowband
received signal
signal demodulator data
demodulator
hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
Receiver
03/08/2019 26
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
4 dimensions: Spatial, time, & frequency multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time and frequency multiplexing
Spread spectrum techniques
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Code division multiplexing
03/08/2019 27
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (also called
chipping sequence)
Many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal tb
03/08/2019 28
DSSS – Transmission
DSSS: XOR of a “long” symbol with a chipping
sequence/code
DSSS can also be elegantly written as pointwise product of
vectors when using +/-1 instead of 0/1
Assign: “1” = -1, “0” = +1
Formally: Transmitted signal, AS(t) for 0 t T,
T symbol time
Represent data by Ad(t) = constant over the duration of a given symbol
Ak(t) is the chipping key 0 t T
03/08/2019 29
DSSS Transmission – Example
Example: Sender A sends Ad = 1, chipping key Ak =
010011
Rewrite, only one value per chip is shown:
Ad = (-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1); Ak = (+1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1)
Compute transmitted signal As = Ad * Ak (pointwise
product)
AS = Ad * Ak = (-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1) * (+1, -1, +1, +1,
-1, -1)
= (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
03/08/2019 30
DSSS Transmission on Signal Level – 2nd example
data A 1 0 1 Ad
key A
key
sequence Ak
A data 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
key 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
signal A As
03/08/2019 31
DSSS in multipath environment
Consider a 2 path environment
Received signal AR(t) consists of two components, one received
over the direct path A0(t) and one over a path with delay A(t)
! AR(t) = A0(t) + A(t) = AS(t) + AS(t-) = Ad(t) Ak(t) + Ad(t - ) Ak(t-)
(neglecting path loss, noise)
Receiver computes scalar product AR ¢ Ak:
AR ¢ Ak = s0 A
T (t)A (t) A (t) + A (t-)A (t-) A (t)dt
d k k d k k
= s0 Ad(t) 1 dt + s0 Ad(t-) Ak(t-) Ak(t) dt
T T
03/08/2019 32
DSSS Transmitter/Receiver Structure
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator
chipping radio
sequence carrier
transmitter
correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision
radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver
03/08/2019 33
Summary: Spread Spectrum Technologies
Basic idea: Combat time-selective fading by exploiting
frequency diversity
“Even if the channel at some given frequency is currently bad, the
chance that it is ok at some other frequency is high”
Therefore: spread the signal to use a larger frequency band
03/08/2019 34
Overview
Interference modeling
Multiplexing
4 dimensions: Spatial, time, & frequency multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time and frequency multiplexing
Spread spectrum techniques
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Code division multiplexing
03/08/2019 35
Code Division Multiplex (CDMA)
Each channel has a unique code k 1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
quality
1 2 5 6
Narrowband channels (FDM)
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal
channel
quality 2
2
2 Spread spectrum
2
2 channels (CDM)
1
spread frequency
spectrum
03/08/2019 37
How does CDMA work?
How can a receiver sort out different transmissions, despite
overlapping in time and frequency?
Transmissions need to differ in “code space”
Different transmissions need to use different keys/chipping
sequences with certain properties
Following example
Senders A and B close to receiver
Signals send in same frequency band, at same time
A and B use different keys
03/08/2019 38
CDMA in theory – By example
Sender A
Sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „1“= -1, „0“= +1)
Signal As = Ad ¢ Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
Sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „1“= -1, „0“= +1)
Signal Bs = Bd ¢ Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
Other interference neglected (noise etc.)
As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
Apply code Ak bitwise (scalar product)
Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) ¢ Ak = -2 + 0 + 0 + -2 + -2 + 0 =
-6
Result smaller than 0, therefore, original bit was „1“
When receiving B, use B’s code
Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) ¢ Bk = +2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 =
+6, i.e. „0“
03/08/2019 39
CDMA in theory – By equation
Formally, receiver receives sum of AS and BS
AS = Ad ¢ Ak, BS = Bd ¢ Bk
We ignore noise and (additional) interference sources
Receiver computes (AS + BS) ¢ Ak to receive Ad:
Ad¢ Ak ¢ Ak + Bd ¢ Bk ¢ Ak = Ad + Bd ¢ Bk ¢ Ak
Bk ¢ Ak should be small (Bk ¢ Ak = s T B (t) A (t) dt )
0
k
k
Ideally: scalar products of any two keys should be 0
Then: each transmitter can be perfectly received
So-called orthogonal keys
If only close to 0: Quasi-orthogonal keys
For chipping sequence of length G, there are G orthogonal
chipping sequences
! G transmitters03/08/2019
can be perfectly separated! 40
Design of a chipping sequence family
Choosing chipping sequences determines performance of
CDMA system
Keys should have good autocorrelation properties
To combat multipath fading
03/08/2019 41
CDMA on signal level
signal A As
data B
Bd
1 0 0
key B
key Bk
sequence
B
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
data key
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
signal B
As + Bs Bs
03/08/2019 42
CDMA on signal level II
data A
1 0 1 Ad
As + Bs
Ak
(As + Bs)
* Ak
inte
grator
output
comp
arator
o
1
03/08/2019 0 1 43
utput
CDMA on signal level III
data B 1 0 0 Bd
As + B s
Bk
(As + Bs)
* Bk
inte
grator
output
comp
arator
o
1
03/08/2019
0 0 44
utput
CDMA on signal level IV
As + Bs
wrong
key K
(As + Bs)
*K
integrator
output
comp
arator
o
utput
03/08/2019 45
Conclusion
Wireless communication is made challenging by
The time- and frequency varying nature of a wireless channel
By interference between multiple transmitters
By attenuation
03/08/2019 46