Perfect codes

Dr D D Karunaratna
Spheres defined in (Fq)n
 Definition : For any vector u in (Fq)n and any integer r ≥ 0,
the sphere of radius r and centre u, denoted by S(u,r), is the
set {v  (Fq)n | d(u,v) ≤ r}

(Fq)n

u
r
Spheres defined in (Fq)n
 Now consider a code C such (Fq)n
that d(C ) ≥ 2t + 1 for some
positive integer t. v
u
 Question: Can the spheres with
radius t of the code words of C
be overlapping?
Spheres defined in (Fq)n
 Assume that spheres of two (Fq)n
code words u and v overlaps.
Let a vector y in the y v
overlapping area. u

d(u,y) ≤ t and d(y,v) ≤ t

d(u,v) ≤ d(u,y) + d(y,v) ≤ t + t
d(u,v) ≤ 2t # d(C ) ≥ 2t + 1
Spheres defined in (Fq)n
 If C is a code such that d(C ) ≥ (Fq)n
2t + 1 for some positive integer
t.
u
 Then spheres of code v

words of C with radius t

are disjoint (not
overlapping)
Spheres defined in (Fq)n
 If a code C is such that d(C ) ≥ 2t + 1 for some positive
integer t, then the spears of code words with radius t can be
visualised as shown in the following diagram.

(Fq)n

u t v t

m t n t
 Spheres defined in (Fq)n
1) Can we correct any vector received in a transmission if it lies inside a sphere of a
code word? For example the vector x
2) To which codeword should we convert that vector?
3)Can we correct any vector received in a transmission if it lies outside a sphere of a
code word? For example the vector y.
4) Up to how many errors in a received vector can be corrected?

(Fq)n
x
u t v t
y

m t n t
 Spheres defined in (Fq)n
1) Can we correct any vector received in a transmission if it lies inside a sphere of a
code word? For example the vector x - Yes
2) To which codeword should we convert that vector? To the vector u
3)Can we correct any vector received in a transmission if it lies outside a sphere of a
code word? For example the vector y. No
4) Up to how many errors in a received vector can be corrected? t errors

(Fq)n
x
u t v t A code C can correct up to t errors in any
y codeword if d(C ) ≥ 2t + 1

m t n t
Vectors having a specific distance from
a given vector.
 Let q = {0,1,2}. How many vectors in (Fq)3 have distance
exactly 2 from the vector 111?
Vectors having a specific distance from
a given vector.
 Let q = {0,1,2}. How many vectors in (Fq)3 have distance
exactly 2 from the vector 111?
1. Select any 2 position of 111. (This can be done in 3C2 ways.)
2. Fill each of these positions from a value in q other than 1.
Number of vectors having
111 111 111 distance exactly 2 from 111
=3x2x2
001 = 3C2 x (3-1)2
021
201
221
2 x 2 ways
Number of vectors in a spear.
 Let u be a vector in (Fq)n
Let m be an integer such that m ≤ r.
How many vectors have distance exactly m from u?

(Fq)n

m
u
r
 Number of vectors in a spear.
 How many vectors have distance exactly m from u?
n
 
 Select m position from n positions in u. This can be  
m

done in nCm ways.

 Fill each of these position from a symbol different to the
symbol at the same location of u. That is each position
can be filled in q-1 different ways. Since there are m
positions to be filled all m positions can be filled in (q-
1)m ways.
 Thus the number of vectors having exactly m from u is
nC * (q-1)m
m
 Number of vectors in a spear.
 The number of vectors inside the spear of the vector u with
radius r is (i.e inside the sphere S(u,r))
= nC0 * (q-1)0 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCr * (q-1)r
= 1 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCr * (q-1)r
 Number of vectors in a spear.
Give a vector u in (Fq)n, the number of vectors in S(u,n) is
= 1 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCn * (q-1)n

For any integer x, (1 + x)n can be defined as

(1 + x)n = 1 + nC1 * x1 +…….+ nCn * xn (Binomial theorem)
Thus the number of vectors in S(u, n)
= 1 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCn * (q-1)n = (1 + (q-1))n
= qn

= | (Fq)n |
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound
 We have seen that the spheres or radius t of M code words of a q-
array(n,M,2t+1)-code are disjoint.

Total number of vectors in each of these sphere is =

= nC0 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCt * (q-1)t

Total number of vectors in all spheres of M code words

= M( nC0 + nC1 * (q-1)1 +…….+ nCt * (q-1)t)

This value should be less than or equal to the total number of vectors in
(Fq)n = q n
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound
 Theorem (sphere-packing or Hamming bound):
A q-array(n,M,2t+1)-code satisfies
M*(nC0 + nC1 * (q-1) +…….+ nCt * (q-1)t ) ≤ q n

 For a given values of q, n and d(=2t+1), the sphere-packing bound

provides an upper bound on the maximum value of M, i.e Aq(n,d).
 However, it does not mean that a code satisfying the sphere-packing
bound exists.
 A binary (n,M,2t+1)-code satisfies
M*(nC0 + nC1 * (2-1) +…….+ nCt * (2-1)t ) ≤ 2 n
M*(nC0 + nC1 +…….+ nCt ) ≤ 2 n
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound
 Assume a binary (n,M,2t+1)-code satisfies the following
condition
M*(nC0 + nC1 +…….+ nCt ) = 2 n

 What can you say about this code?

Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound
 Assume a binary (n,M,2t+1)-code satisfies the following
condition
M*(nC0 + nC1 +…….+ nCt ) = 2 n

 What can you say about this code?

 Every vector in (F2)n is in one and only one sphere of a
code-word.
 When any code-word is distorted (up to t errors) during
transmission, it can be corrected.
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound ..
 Example :
What should be A2(5,3)?

A2(5,3) should satisfy the following inequality (d(c) =2t+1= 3 = 2 *1 + 1)

M*(5C0 + 5C1 ) ≤ 2 5
M( 1+ 5) ≤ 32
Maximum value for M to satisfy this equation is = 5
Thus A2(5,3) ≤ 5

 However, we have seen that binary(5,5,3) code does not exists and A2(5,3) = 4
00000
01101
10110
11011
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound ..
 Example :
What should be A2(7,3)?
Sphere-packing (Hamming) Bound ..
 Example :
What should be A2(7,3)?

A2(7,2*1+1) should satisfy

M*(7C0 + 7C1 ) ≤ 2 7
M( 1+ 7) ≤ 128
M ≤ 16
Maximum value for M to satisfy this equation is = 16
Thus A2(7,3) ≤ 16
Perfect Codes
 A code achieving the equality of sphere-packing bound is
called a perfect code.
 For a perfect t-error correcting code, the M spheres of radius t
centred on code words should fill the whole space (Fq)n
without overlapping.
 Every vector in (Fq)n at a distance ≤ t should merge to a single
vector (code word at the centre of the sphere).
Perfect Codes ……
 Compute the following:
 A2(3,3) = ?
 A2(5,5) = ?
 A2(7,7) = ?
Perfect Codes ……
 A2(3,3) = A(3,2*1+1)
 M*(1 + 3C1 ) ≤ 2 3
 M* 4 ≤ 8
 M≤2
A2(3,3) = 2
Thus a binary(3,2,3) is a perfect code
Perfect Codes ……
 A2(5,5) = A(5,2*2+1)
 M*(1 +5C1 +5C2 ) ≤ 2 5
 M* (1+ 5+ 10) ≤ 32
 M≤2
A2(5,5) = 2
Thus a binary(5,2,5) is a perfect code
Perfect Codes ……
 A2(7,7) = A(7,2*3+1)
 M*(1 +7C1 +7C2 + 7C3 ) ≤ 27
 M* (1+ 7+ 21 + 35) ≤ 128
 M *64≤ 128
A2(7,7) = 2

Thus a binary(7,2,7) is a perfect code.

Is a binary(n,2,n) is a perfect code when n is odd?
Perfect Codes ……
 When n is odd, A binary(n,2,n) is a perfect code.
 What can you say about the following binary repetition code of length n, where
n is odd? Is it a perfect code?

000…..0
111…...1

It is a perfect binary code

This is an example of a trivial perfect code

Also codes which contain just one codeword ( (n,1,n)-code) or the

whole of (F2)n ( (n,2n,1)-code) are called trivial perfect codes.
Finding all perfect codes is a challenging task in coding theory