RADIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS

Reporter: Exel Jan Javil

 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS
LC Oscillator
• Free – running LC oscillator can be easily tuned to different
frequencies.
• The operating frequency is usually determined tuned circuits
• Variable – frequency oscillators (VFOs)
• Exhibit undesired frequency changes as a result vibration,
voltage or temperature changes and component aging
• Accurately setting these oscillators to a particular frequency
requires precision – built variable capacitors or inductors and
expensive dials using complicated arrangements of gears and
pulleys
Crystal Oscillator
• It has very good stability
• With voltage regulation and temperature control,
frequency drift can be reduced to a few parts per
million over long time periods
• The disadvantage, the frequency can be change only a
very small amount by adjusting series or parallel
capacitors
• Impossible for any application that requires
continuous frequency variation
• Most receivers and many transmitters require the
frequency agility of the VFO coupled with the stability
and accuracy of the crystal oscillator.
• For many years, it was customary to use VFOs for
applications
• Tuning had to be continuous or there were large
numbers of frequencies in use
• It was required on only a relatively small number of
different frequency when using a crystal oscillators
with switchable crystal
• In recent years, phase – lock frequency synthesizer
has become very popular
• The preferred method of frequency generation in
most modern receivers and transmitters
• It is often possible to save money as well as
improve performance
• Reduces the requirements for mechanical precision
 PHASE – LOCKED LOOPS (PLL)
• Invented in 1932
• It is only since 1970, when it was first produced on an
IC that it has been much more than a laboratory
curiosity
• PLL synthesizer can be constructed using tubes or
discrete transistor
• But so many devices would be needed that the
technique is not practical
Simple Phase – Lock Loop
• The purpose of the PLL is to lock the VCO to the
reference signal
• The signal will have the same frequency
• The phase angle between the signals will remain
constant hence the term phase – locked
• When the loop starts operating, the VCO will
operate at its free – running frequency
• Free – running frequency, the frequency at which
operates when the control voltage is zero
• This will probably not be the same as the reference
frequency
• The loop is said to be unlocked
• The VCO frequency will change until it is the same
as the external input signal when phase detector
generates a control voltage
• It is called acquisition of phase lock
• Once the phase lock has been acquired, the loop
will remain locked indefinitely.
PHASE – LOCK LOOP OPERATION
• The range over which the reference frequency can be
varied and still achieve phase lock is called capture
range
• It determines how far apart the external and internal
frequencies can initially be for the loop to achieve lock
• As the lock has been achieved, the VCO is
synchronized to the reference frequency
• If the reference frequency is change, it gradually
moving from the free- running frequency of the VCO
• The total frequency range within which lock, once
achieved and can be maintained is called the lock range
• Generally, the VCO generates the output frequency 𝑓𝑜 .
• 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑁𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓
• This means that a large number of different output
frequencies, all locked to a single crystal – controlled
reference, can be generated simply by changing the
modulus (the value of N)
• Modulus can be changed by altering the voltages on
some of the pins of the divider chip
• Resolution – is the minimum frequency step
PLL Frequency Specification
Frequency Synthesizer with Divider for the
Reference Frequency
 PRESCALING
• Programmable divider are simply not available at
frequencies much above 100 MHz
• Emitter – Coupled Logic (ECL)
• It is a digital technology that can be used at frequencies
above 1 GHz
• For even higher frequencies, discrete transistors using
gallium arsenide could be used
• This will work well into the microwave region
Frequency Synthesizer with Fixed Prescaler
The VCO
frequency is
divided by the
fixed M, the by the
programmable
modulus N, before
it is compared
with the reference
frequency
 𝑓𝑜
• 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
𝑀𝑁
• 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑀𝑁𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓
• Since only N can be change, the minimum amount by
which the frequency can be changed is now 𝑀𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓
• For example, if 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 is 10 kHz and a 10 : 1 prescalar is
used, the minimum step by which the frequency can
be changed is 100 kHz
• A truly elegant solution to the problem, one that is
often used in synthesizers for VHF and UHF is to use
TWO – MODULUS PRESCALAR
• This is a divider that can be programmed to divide by
either of two consecutive integers
Frequency Synthesizer with Two – Modulus
Prescaler
• The prescalar and the main counter has divider the
VCO output by a factor of (M + NP). Therefore
• 𝑓𝑜 = (𝑀 + 𝑁𝑃)𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓
 FREQUENCY TRANSLATION

• A band filter is used to remove the difference

component as well as the VCO and crystal oscillator
frequencies from the mixer output
• The movement of a block of frequencies is called a
frequency translation
Synthesizer with Frequency Shifting
Synthesizer with Mixer in the Loop
IMPORTANT KEYWORDS
• Free – Running Frequency >> the frequency at which a VCO
operates when its control voltage is zero
• Frequency Synthesizer >> a device the can be produce a
large number of output frequencies from a smaller number
of fixed frequency oscillators
• Frequency Translation >> movement of a signal from one
frequency to another using mixer – oscillator combination
• Lock Range >> total range of frequencies over which a PLL,
once locked, can remain locked
• Modulus >> the number by which a digital divider chain
divides
• Phase Detector >> a device whose output voltage is a
function of the phase difference between two input
signal
• Phase – Locked Loop (PLL) >> a device that locks the
frequency of a VCO exactly to that of an input signal
• Prescaler >> a divider that precedes the main
programmable divider in a frequency synthesizer
• Voltage – Controlled Oscillator (VCO) >> an oscillator
whose frequency can be controlled by changing an
external control voltage