Program Studi Teknik Geologi Fakultas Ilmu Kebumiaan Dan Teknologi Mineral Institut Teknologi Bandung

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Program Studi Teknik Geologi

Fakultas Ilmu kebumiaan dan Teknologi Mineral
Institut Teknologi Bandung
DEFINITIONS
Structural Geology : Study rock deformation
Deformation = Changes in rocks caused by force
Force = Stress (s)
Changes (Place, Length, Volume, Angle) = Strain (e)

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Outcrop
Structural Geology
Concepts
Modeling 2D/3D Seismic
MODERN
STRUCTURAL
Well Bore Data
GEOLOGY
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BASIC CONCEPTS
Stress and Strain
MODERN
TECTONICS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
CREATE
AND
DEFORM
BASIN EXPLORATION DEVELOPMENT
• PROSPECTS
• TRAPS AND PLAYS • IN-SITU STRESS MEASUREMENT
• HYDROCARBON MIGRATION • FAULT STABILITY
• KINEMATICS • RESERVOIR GEOMECHANICS
• STRUCTURAL RECONSTRUCTIONS • FAULT SEAL INTEGRITY
• TECTONICS AND BASIN EVOLUTION • RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION
• RESOURCES AND RESERVE • FRACTURE RESERVOIR
CALCULATION
• RISK ANALYSIS
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Fakultas
Twiss Ilmu kebumiaan
and Moores, 1992 dan Teknologi Mineral
TECTONICS AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
• Study of rock Deformation as Response to Forces and Stresses

• Involving Motion of Rigid Body
Deformation = Translation + Rotation + Dilation + Distortion
FACTOR CONTROLING DEFORMATION

• SCALE FACTOR
• RHEOLOGY
• TIME FACTOR
• DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
• KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
• DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
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TECTONICS AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
NEW CONCEPTS IN TECTONIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
• LINKED FAULT AND FOLD SYSTEMS

Geometric
Kinematic
Dynamic
• PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION
• SCALE INDEPENDENCE IN BRITTLE DEFORMATION
• STRUCTURAL INHERITANCE
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Deformation of rock in various scale
(Modified from Means, 1976)
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Km-Scale Fold
SCALE FACTOR
Plates m-Scale Fold
Aerial Photograph
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY DATA

FOLLOW FRACTAL RELATIONSHIP
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BASIC GEOLOGY DATA
• FIELD OUTCROPS (ANALOGUE)
• SUBSURFACE DATA (SEISMIC, WELL, GRAVITY, MAGNETIC, etc.)
• MODELING (NUMERICAL OR ANALOGUE)
INTERPRETATIONS
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FRACTURES AND JOINTS
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SYSTEMATIC FRACTURES
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SYSTEMATIC FRACTURES
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FAULTING
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FAULTED ROCKS
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REGIONAL SCALE FOLDS
500 m 50m
3m 500 m
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OUTCROP SCALE FOLDS
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FOLDING
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FOLDED FOLIATION
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2D SEISMIC
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2D SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
X
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Geologic Cross-Section
and
Seismic Section
5 Km
10Km
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BALANCING CROSS-SECTIONS
3D-RECONSTRUCTIONS
• LINE AND AREA BALANCES
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EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURE
• Force history
• Movement history
Single Particle Particles
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DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
THREE TYPES OF STRUCTURES
• CONTACTS
• PRIMARY STRUCTURES
• SECONDARY STRUCTURES
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RHEOLOGY
• BRITTLE • DUCTILE
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BASIC CONCEPTS
STRESS STRAIN
UNDERSTANDING MECHANISM QUANTIFICATION DEFORMATION
DYNAMICS ANALYSIS KINEMATICS ANALYSIS
• Balancing Cross-sections
• Basin Reconstructions
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STRESS vs. STRAIN
STRESS STRAIN
RHEOLOGY
LITHOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY
Rock Strength
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Stress (s)
• Stress (s) = F/A di mana A=luas permukaan
• Unit stress yang umum adalah pascal (KPa, MPa, GPa), bar atau dalam
skala luas seperti psi (pound per square inch) dan kg/cm2
• Stress untuk batuan di dalam bumi: s =gh (lithostatic stress)
• Stress pada suatu titik dapat dibagi menjadi normal (sn) dan shear (ss)
stress komponen
• Stress dapat bersifat compressive (+) dan tensile (-)
• Shear stress dalam sistem kopel akan positive bila searah jarum jam dan
negative bila berlawanan arah jarum jam
• Stress 2D disuatu titik digambarkan sebagai stress ellipse
• Stress 3D disuatu titik digambarkan sebagai stress ellipsoid
• Principles stress : s1> s 2> s 3
• Koordinat sumbu utama stress (x1,x2,x3) adalah sejajar dgn stress utama
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STRESS
• Stress at a point in 2D
Stress (s)
• Types of stress
Normal stress (sN)
(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (sS)
(+) (-)
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COULOMB CRITERION – FRICTIONAL SLIDING
SLIDING OCCURS WHEN :

sn
m = sS/sn
m= Coefficient of friction
(sliding friction)
sS
Coulomb Failure Function:
CFF = sS - msn
Effective Normal Stress:
sn = sn - Pp
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Stress Ellipsoid
a) Triaxial stress
b) Principal planes of the ellipsoid
Principal Stress:
s1 >s2 >s3
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Basic Fundamental Structural Geology
STRESS (s) AND STRAIN (e)
“As Geologist I don’t believe in stress (John Ramsay)”
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STRESS (s)
STRAIN (e)
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Term for Stress and Strain
*) Important distinction between two quantity
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VECTOR AND COORDINATE SYSTEM
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BASIC CONCEPTS
FORCES AND VECTORS
• Force is any action which alters, or tends to alter
• Newton II law of motion : F=Ma
• Unit force : kgm/s2 = newton (N) or dyne = gram cm/s2; N = 105 dynes
(a). Force : vector quantity with magnitude and direction

(b). Resolving by the parallelogram of forces
Two Types of Force

• Body Forces (i.e. gravitational force)
• Contact Forces (i.e. loading)
Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)
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MAGNITUDE VECTOR
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GEOLOGY CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
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Force Equilibrium
(A) Balance
(B) Torque
(C) Static Equilibrium
(D) Dynamic Equilibrium
(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)
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STRESS
Stress defined as force per unit area :
s = F/A
A = area, Stress units = Psi, Newton (N),
Pascal (Pa) or bar (105 Pa)

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
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Types of Stress
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STRESS
• Stress at a point in 2D
Stress (s)
• Types of stress
Normal stress (sN)
(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (sS)
(+) (-)
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STRESS on PLANE
• Coordinate System
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STRESS AT A POINT
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STRESS ON A PLANE AND AT A POINT
• An arbitrary stress on a plane can be resolved into three components
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STRESS IN 3D
s3
s2
s1 s1
s2
s3
Stress Tensor Notation
s11 s12 s13

s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
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STRESS ON A PLANE AND AT A POINT
s11 s12 s13

s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
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Geologic Sign
Convention of
Stress Tensor
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PRINCIPAL STRESS
• All stress axes are mutually

perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the
Stress Tensor Notation direction of principal stress
s11 s12 s13 s11 0 0

s = s21 s22 s23 = 0 s22 0
s31 s32 s33 0 0 s33 Principal Stress:
s1 > s2 > s3
s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32
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FUNDAMENTAL STRESS EQUATIONS
Principal Stress:
s1 > s2 > s3
• All stress axes are mutually
perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the
direction of principal stress
s11 s12 s13

s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32

Stress Ellipsoid
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Stress Ellipsoid
a) Triaxial stress
b) Principal planes of the ellipsoid
Principal Stress:
s1 >s2 >s3
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Stress Ellipsoid
a) Triaxial stress
b) Principal planes of
the ellipsoid
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z s
The State of s3
x
Two-Dimensional
Stress at Point
A. Stress elipse
s
s3
X3
X1
Principal Stress:
s1 > s3
B. Principal stress components Principal coordinate
axes and planes
s(top)
zz
(top)
z x, z = Surface Stress
Z
s(top) (rt)
x
zx
s(lft)
s(lft)
xx
xz dz
X
dx
s(rt) s(rt)
xx
xz
 (lft) s(bot)
zx
x
(bot)
z
s (bot)
zz Arbitrary coordinate
axes and planes
C. General stress components
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The State of
3-Dimensional A. Stress elipsoid
Stress at Point
x3
z
x1
s s3
Principal
coordinate planes
z Principal Stress:
s2
s1 > s2 > s3
y
x2
y
x
B. Principal stress components x
z
Arbitrary
coordinate planes
szz z
szx
szy
syx
y
sxy syy
sxz syz
sxx
y
x
x

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The State of
3-Dimensional
Stress at Point Principal Stress:
A. Stress elipsoid
s1 > s2 > s3
x3
z
x1
s s3
Principal
coordinate planes
z Stress Tensor Notation
s2 s11 s12 s13

x2
y
s = s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
y
x
B. Principal stress components x
z
Arbitrary
coordinate planes
szz z
s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32
szx
szy
syx
y
sxy syy
sxz syz
sxx
y
x
x
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MEAN STRESS
DEVIATORIC STRESS
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SPECIAL
STATE OF STRESS
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COULOMB CRITERION – FRICTIONAL SLIDING
SLIDING OCCURS WHEN :

sn
m = sS/sn
m= Coefficient of friction
(sliding friction)
sS
Coulomb Failure Function:
CFF = sS - msn
Effective Normal Stress:
sn = sn - Pp
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Diagram Mohr
• Analisa Stress ellipse memperlihatkan bahwa komponen normal stress
dan shear stress pada bidang harus berubah secara progressif,
tergantung orientasi dari bidangnya. Hubungan antara orientasi bidang
dan harga normal stress serta shear stress pada bidang sulit untuk
digambarkan dengan stress ellipse. Untuk memudahkan gambaran
secara grafis digunakan Diagram Mohr di mana sumbu horizontal adalah
harga normal stress ( sn ) dan sumbu vertikal shear stress ( ss ).
• Karakteristik Diagram Mohr adalah sbb :
– Diagram Mohr mempunyai sumbu yaitu harga stress.
– Mohr Circle adalah tempat kedudukan yang mewakili stress pada suatu titik.
– Principal stresses maximum dan minimun normal stresses didefinisikan
sebagai perpotongan antara Mohr Circle dengan sumbu sn dimana pada
point ini harga ss = 0.
– Sudut  dalam diagram Mohr menjadi 2.
– Shear stress maximum dan bidang conjugate: untuk stress yang normal
bidangnya pada  = 45o terhadap sumbu maximum stress terjadi pada
diagram Mohr 2  = 90o. Dimana pada bidang ini nilai absolut ss adalah 0.
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2D MOHR DIAGRAM AND STRESS EQUATION
Mohr Diagram
Physical Diagram
s1 + s3 + s1 – s3
sN = cos 2
2 2
Stress Equation :
s1 – s3
ss = Sin 2
2
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Mohr Diagram 2D
Planes of maximum shear stress
A. Physical Diagram ss B. Mohr Diagram

x x
 = +45º Planes of maximum ss max
' = +45º
+
shear stress -
Counter clockwise
n n
s s
ss s3 x3 s3 x3 s3 20º s sn
ss
2' 0º
Counterclockwise Clockwise ss max

shear stress shear stress Clockwise
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Mohr Diagram 2-D
A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

x1 ss
n
 
s(p')
n , ss )
(p')
s(p)
 n , ss )
(p)
p'
n' 2
p 2
s3 2 s sn
x3 sn
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Mohr Diagram 2-D
A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

x1
x ss

0º) sxx
z sxx' sxz)

sxz s s zz
sz x 20º) 2 2sxz
s3 x3 s3 2 s sn
szz' szx)
s xx s zz )
sxxszz)
2
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Mohr Diagram 3-D
Geometry of a three-dimensional
Stress on a Mohr diagram
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Mohr Diagram 3-D
Maximum Shear Stress
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EARTH 3D STRESS SYSTEM
Principal Stress:
s1 > s2 > s3
s3
s2
s1 s1
s2
s3
• All stress axes are mutually perpendicular

Stress Ellipsoid • Shear stress are zero in the direction of
principal stress
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• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress

• Mean stress is hydrostatic component which tends to produce dilation
• Deviatoric stress is non hydrostatic which tends to produce distortion
• Differential stress, if greater is potential for distortion
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STRESS
• Body force works from distance and depends on the amount of
materials affected (i.e. gravitational force).
• Surface force are classes as compressive or tensile according to the
distortion they produce.
• Stress is defined as force per unit area.
• Stress at the point can be divided as normal and shear component
depending they direction relative to the plane.
• Structural geology assumed that force at point are isotropic and
homogenous
• Stress vector around a point in 3-D as stress ellipsoid which have
three orthogonal principal directions of stress and three principal
planes.
• Principal stress s1>s2>s3
• The inequant shape of the ellipsoid has to do with forces in rock and
has nothing directly to do with distortions.
• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress of rock
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Image of Stress
ss ss ss
s s2 s3 sn s2 s3 s sn s3 s s2 sn

p
p 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0
0 p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 p 0 0 0 0 0 -a
A. Hydrostatic stress B. Uniaxial compression C. Uniaxial tension
ss ss ss
s2 s sn s3 s sn s3 s3 s3 sn
s3 s2
a 0 0 a 0 0 a 0 0
0 b 0 0 a 0 0 b 0
0 0 b 0 0 b 0 0 c
D. Axial or confined E. Axial extension or F. Triaxial stress
compression extensional stress
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Image of Stress
ss ss
sn
Deviatoric Applied
s3 s2 s sn s3  s3 s3 s sn
sn
a 0 0
0 0 0 s 0
 s sn 0
=
0 0 -a 0 s
 0 s3 sn
G. Pure shear stress H. Deviatoric stress
(two-dimensional)
ss ss
Effective Applied
s3 s s3 s s3 s sn s3
E s2
E Es s2 sn
s3 s
D s D s D s pf s 0 s p f
0 0 0
E
D ss s3 0 Es 2 0 = 0 s2 p f 0
I. Differential stress J. Effective stress 0 0 Es 3 0 0 s3 p f
(Three examples)
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Relationship Between Stress and Strain
• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock

Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility
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EXPERIMENT ROCK DEFORMATION
TRIAXIAL TEST
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
MODEL APPARATUS
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STRESS VS. STRAIN DIAGRAM
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ROCK MECHANICS CONCEPTS
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ROCK STRENGTH
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Institut Teknologi Bandung GMI (2001)
STRESS - STRAIN RELATIONS
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STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONS
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Stress – Strain Diagram
Yield Strength
400 After Strain
Hardening Ultimate
D Strength
C B E
300 A
Differential Stress (in MPa)

Yield
Strength Rep ture
Strength
200
100
1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain (in %)
A. Onset plastic deformation

B. Removal axial load
C. Permanently strained
D. Plastic deformation
E. Rupture
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Effects of Confining Pressure
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Effects of Temperature and Differential Stress
2000
140
130
25ºC
Differential Stress (in MPa)

30 0 1500
80
Differential Stress, MPa
70
60
300ºC
20 0
40 1000
20
500ºC
10 0
500
Crown Point Limestone
700ºC
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 800ºC
Strain, percent 0
5 10 15 Strain (in %)
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Deformation and Material
A. Elastic strain
B. Viscous strain
C. Viscoelastic strain
D. Elastoviscous
E. Plastic strain
Hooke’s Law: e = s/E, E = Young Modulus or Elasticity (Modified from Park, 1989)
Newtonian : s = he, hViscosity, e = Strain-Rate
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Effect increasing stress to strain-rate
(Modified from Park, 1989)
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BRITTLE AND DUCTILE
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EXPERIMENT ROCK DEFORMATION
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
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(a) Tensional fractures
(b) Compressive fractures (shear fracture)
(c) Hybrid fractures
(d) No fractures (dilation)
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DEFORMATION MECHANISM
CATACLASTIC AND PLASTIC
Internal
deformation could
be by grain-scale
fracturing or by
plastic flow of
mineral
BRITTLE DUCTILE
• Cataclastic deformation : rock deformation produced by fracturing

and rotating if individual grains or grain aggregates meaning both
brittle and ductile deformation can be accomplished by cataclastic
mechanism.
• Flow of individual mineral grains without fracturing or breaking i.e.
through dislocation glide, climb and diffusion
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CATACLASTIC AND PLASTIC
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BRITTLE VS. DUCTILE
DISTRIBUTION OF DEFORMATION
LOCALIZED DISTRIBUTED
INCREASING STRAIN RATE
BRITTLE CATACLASTIC
MECHANISM OF
DEFORMATION
CATACLASTIC
FAULTING FLOW
INCREASING TEMPERATURE, CONFINING PRESSURE
CRYSTAL PLASTIC HOMOGENOUS

PLASTIC SHEAR ZONE PLASTIC FLOW
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STRESS vs. STRAIN
Stress (s) Strain (t)
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STRESS vs. STRAIN
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Limitation of The Concept of Stress in Structural Geology
• No quantitative relationship between

stress and permanent strain
• Paleostress determination contain
errors
• No implication equation relating
stress to strain rate that causes the
deformation
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MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF ROCKS
• Rheology apply for elastic and viscous materials.
• Rheology is material response that relates stress and strain
• Elasticity (i.e. spring): instantaneous recoverable (non-
permanent) material response
• Stress = (material constant) * strain  (Hooke’s Law)
• Viscosity : time-dependent, permanent (non-recoverable)

material response
• Most rock behaves with both of these characteristic
• Elasticity derives from chemical bonds among atoms in rock
• Fracture results from catastrophic rupture of those chemical
bonds to make a surface through the rock having no cohesion
• Friction is the resistance to sliding due to mechanical
interaction across a surface lacking cohesion.
• Crystal plasticity results from the movement of defect
within crystals.
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STRENGTH OF THE LITHOSPHERE
• The dominant deformation mechanism in the lithosphere are fractures
and crystal plasticity.
• Fracture are ubiquitous enough that at scale of the lithosphere, its
strength is limited not by the generation of new fracture but rather
by friction on already existing fractures.
• Friction is very sensitive to pressure (strength increase with increasing
pressure), but insensitive to temperature and composition.
• Crystal plasticity is very sensitive to temperature (strength decreases
with increasing temperature) and composition, but insensitive to
pressure.
• Both pressure and temperature increase with depth in the lithosphere.
• At any given depth (i.e. pressure and temperature), rocks will reach
the limit of frictional strength first or crystal plastic strength.
• One of these two deformation will limit the strength of the lithosphere
and generated predominant structures.
• The strong part of Lithosphere is the middle of the crust, followed
by the upper-most mantle in many areas.
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Stress-06/09/2006

Program Studi Teknik Geologi

Deformation = Changes in rocks caused by force

Force = Stress (s)

Changes (Place, Length, Volume, Angle) = Strain (e)

Modeling 2D/3D Seismic

• Study of rock Deformation as Response to Forces and Stresses

Deformation = Translation + Rotation + Dilation + Distortion

FACTOR CONTROLING DEFORMATION

NEW CONCEPTS IN TECTONIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

• LINKED FAULT AND FOLD SYSTEMS

• SCALE INDEPENDENCE IN BRITTLE DEFORMATION

(Modified from Means, 1976)

Plates m-Scale Fold

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY DATA

• SUBSURFACE DATA (SEISMIC, WELL, GRAVITY, MAGNETIC, etc.)

• MODELING (NUMERICAL OR ANALOGUE)

• LINE AND AREA BALANCES

THREE TYPES OF STRUCTURES

UNDERSTANDING MECHANISM QUANTIFICATION DEFORMATION

DYNAMICS ANALYSIS KINEMATICS ANALYSIS

Normal stress (sN)

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

SLIDING OCCURS WHEN :

Effective Normal Stress:

b) Principal planes of the ellipsoid

“As Geologist I don’t believe in stress (John Ramsay)”

*) Important distinction between two quantity

(a). Force : vector quantity with magnitude and direction

Two Types of Force

Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)

(C) Static Equilibrium

(D) Dynamic Equilibrium

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

Stress defined as force per unit area :

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

Normal stress (sN)

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

• An arbitrary stress on a plane can be resolved into three components

Stress Tensor Notation

s11 s12 s13

Stress Tensor Notation

s11 s12 s13

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

• All stress axes are mutually

s11 s12 s13 s11 0 0

Stress Tensor Notation

s11 s12 s13

s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32

b) Principal planes of the ellipsoid

(Modified from Means, 1976)

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

s2 s11 s12 s13

SLIDING OCCURS WHEN :

Effective Normal Stress:

Planes of maximum shear stress

A. Physical Diagram ss B. Mohr Diagram

Counterclockwise Clockwise ss max

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram