Lecture 6, Geological Structure

Week No.
06
CE-217
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY & SEISMOLOGY
Credit Units: 03 Credit Hrs. (Contact Hrs. 03)
Sections: U, E
Dr. Muhammad Waseem
Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar
Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Waseem 1
Reference Books
1. A Text Book of Engg.

Geology by K.M
Banger
2. Geotechnical
earthquake
engineering by Steven
L. Kramer
3. Earthquakes newly
revised and expanded
by Bruce A. Bolt
University of
California, Berkeley

Course Aims / Objectives
 To enable students to apply the

knowledge of engineering geology in
civil engineering projects and the
protection of life and property against
damage caused by
various geological conditions.
 To provide the basic knowledge about
the earthquake process and
mechanism, and their impacts on the
built environment, to facilitate the
earthquake resistant design of civil
infrastructures.

CLOs, Mapping with PLOs
Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
CLO Taxonomy
Description PLO
No. Domain
1 Define basic terminologies used in geology and seismology C1 1
Explain different processes like, earthquakes, seismic wave
2 propagation, rocks formation, weathering, erosion, C2 1
deposition, etc.
Analyze geological and seismological data to ascertain
3 C4 2
parameters affecting civil engineering infrastructure.

Weekly Schedule
Quizzes
Week Weekly Lectures
Assignment
Objectives of the course, Introduction , branches of geology, Importance of geology, Geological hazards,
1
engineering geology as a vital tool for civil engineers, what happens when geology is ignored?
Definition and explanation of Minerals, classification of rock forming minerals, properties of minerals. How minerals
2
are identified,
3 Definitions , classification and formation of rocks, Properties of rocks, Rock cycle, Igneous Rocks and its classification Assignment 1
Definition and explanation of Sediments, Sedimentary rock, classification and formation, Metamorphism its types,
4 Quiz 1
and metamorphic rocks, classification and properties.
Introduction to Weathering Erosion, Deposition, weathering process, types of weathering, what affects the rate of
5
weathering. Product of weathering.
Introduction to geological structures, stress, strain, strength, types of stresses, behavior of rocks under stress, folds
6 terminology, types of folds, recognition of folds in the field, Joints, faults and fractures and its types, uses of Assignment 2
geological structures to age strata.
Important Geological Considerations for Dam Site selection, Geological Considerations for Tunneling. Effects of
7
Associated Geological Structures
8 Mid-Term Exam

Weekly Schedule
Introduction to engineering seismology, difference between geologist and seismologist, induced effects of
9
earthquakes, world seismicity, plate tectonics, continental drift theory, sea floor spreading, elastic rebound theory.
10 What are seismic waves, wave terminology, seismic waves, sources of seismic waves, multiple frequency signals Quiz 2
11 Types of seismic waves, seismic wave propagation, earthquake origin parameters, travel times, locating earthquakes. Assignment 3
Measuring earthquake size, earthquake magnitude, Richter’s local magnitude, modern seismic magnitudes, surface
12
wave magnitude, body wave magnitude, seismic moment and moment magnitude
Conversion between magnitude scales, relationship between magnitude scales, energy magnitude relationship,
13 magnitude discrepancies, earthquake intensities, magnitude and intensity, different types of intensity scales, Quiz 3
damage state and vulnerability
How ground motion is recorded, instrument sensitivity, amplitude and frequency range of a seismic signals,
Long
14 Amplitude and frequency range of a seismometer, features of digital strong motion recorders, data sampling and
assignment
recording
Strong ground motion parameters, amplitude parameters, frequency content parameters, Fourier and response
15
spectra, strong ground motion duration parameters
16 Introduction of site effects, basic of seismic hazard analysis, hazard mapping and zonation
18 Final-Term Exam

Lecture No. 6
Agenda
 Basic terminologies in Geological Structures

 Behavior of Rocks under Stresses
 Folds terminology, types of folds, recognition of folds in
the field
 Joints, faults and fractures and its types

Re-Cap
Week No. 05:

Weathering and erosion process
Factor Affecting weathering
Products of weathering
Agents of erosion
Deposition

Structural Geology
 Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the

formation of geologic structures and how these structures affect rocks.
Structural geology deals with a variety of structural features that can range
in size from microscopic (such as traces of earlier folds after multiple
events of deformation have occurred) to large enough to span the globe
(such as mid oceanic ridges).
 It is mainly concerned with shapes, arrangement, interrelationships of
bedrock units & forces that cause them
 Geological Structure are dynamically-produced patterns or arrangements

of rock or sediment that result from, and give information about, forces
within the Earth. These are produced as rocks change shape and
orientation in response to applied stress.

Rock Deformation
 Rock deformation. refers to the tilting, bending or fracturing of a rock.

this occurs when some force is applied to the rocks and causes
stresses.
 The forces that cause deformation of rock are referred to as stresses
(Force/unit area).
 Stresses on rocks can stem from various sources, such as changes in
temperature or moisture, shifts in the Earth's plates, sediment buildup or
even gravity.
 Large scale deformation of the
Earth’s crust = Plate Tectonics
 Smaller scale
deformation = Structural Geology
 Folds and faults are geological
structures.

Dip and Strike
Angle of inclination with the horizontal plane is called Dip.

It includes both direction and angle.
Strike is the formed by the intersection of with the horizontal plane

Rock Deformation

Rock Deformation

Behavior of Rocks under Stress
 The type of deformation depends on the mechanical properties of the rocks and the nature
of the stresses.
 When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it passes through successive stages of
deformation.
 Elastic deformation
 Deformation is reversible, after stress is removed, materials return to original
shape, i.e. A rubber band
 Plastic deformation
 Deformation is permanent
 Rock flow in response to stress
 Need high pressures and temperatures, generally deep inearth’s interior.
 Brittle deformation
 Deformation is permanent
 Rock break (fracture) or lose cohesion
 Generally low temperature and low pressure, common in shallow crust
What Controls The Style of Strain
 Material Under a set of conditions, one material may deform plastically while
others may be elastic or brittle. (For example, at room temperature, steel is
elastic, fresh potato chips are brittle, and mashed potatoes are elastic or plastic.)
 Magnitude of stresses (At low stress, most deformation is elastic. At higher
stresses ductile or brittle deformation occurs)
 Pressure & Temperature Rocks near the surface, where temperatures and
confining pressures are low, usually behave like brittle solids and fracture once
their strength is exceeded
 Strain Rate Brittle deformation usually occurs at high strain rate
 Time Forces that are unable to deform rock when first applied may cause rock to
flow if the force is maintained over a long period of time.
 History of the material (pre-existing cracks and crystal defects)
The variation of these factors determines if a rock will fault or fold

Types of Stresses
 Tensional (Extension) Stress
 Compressional Stress
 Shear Stress

Types of Stresses
 Tensional or Extensional Stresses
 Stress move away from each
other
(pull apart)
 Rock lengthens
 Common in divergent boundaries, but
not sole locale
 Ductile deformation –
stretching and thinning of rock
 Brittle deformation –
fracturing and faulting

Types of Stresses
 Compressional Stresses
 Stress presses (squeezes)
rocks together.
 Rock shortens
 Common at convergent
boundaries
 Ductile deformation –
shortening and thickening
of rock – rock folds
 Brittle deformation –
fracturing and faulting.

Types of Stresses
 Shear Stresses
 Stress creates a lateral shift
in the
rock
 Rock slides past other rock
 Common at transform boundaries
 Results in faults

Folds
 When rocks deform in a ductile

manner, instead of fracturing to form
faults or joints, they may bend or
fold or tend to produce folds by
buckling or plastic flow and the
resulting structures are called folds.
 Folds result from compressional
stresses or shear stresses acting over
considerable time. Because the strain
rate is low and/or the temperature is
high, rocks that we normally
consider brittle can behave in a
ductile manner resulting in such
folds.

Folds
• The wavy undulations in the rock beds (folds)

are caused by pressures within the Earth's
crust resulting from plate-tectonic activity.
• Rocks are slowly pushed and compressed
together, forming folds. Such deformation
usually occurs in sedimentary layers that are
softer and more flexible.
• If the force is more sudden, and the rock
more brittle, then a fault forms instead of a
fold.
 They consist of arches and troughs in
alternate manner.
 The size of folds vary greatly. Width of some
folds are measured in kilometers while those
of others in meters or centimeters.
Fold Terminology
 Geometry of folds are described by their form
and orientation:
 Anticline: It is an up fold where the limbs dip
away from the axis- it forms a ridge.
 Syncline: It is a down fold where the limbs
dip towards the axis- it forms trough.
 Limbs: The sloping side of a fold from crest
to trough is called the limb.
 Axial Plane: It is an imaginary plane or
surface which divides the fold into equal
halves, marks location of maximum
curvature.
 Hinge line: The center axis of a fold is
called the hinge line.

Fold Symmetry
 Symmetrical fold is one where the axial plane is vertical and the two limbs have
the same amount of dip.
 Asymmetrical fold is one where the axial plane is inclined and the limbs
dip at different angles, and in opposite directions.

Types of Folds
 Syncline (the two limbs dip towards the axis- it forms trough)
 Anticline (the two limbs dip away from the axis- it forms a ridge)
 Isocline (the two limbs of a fold are essentially parallel to each other)
 Overturned (the limbs of overturned folds dip in the same direction)
 Recumbent (the limbs are essentially horizontal and parallel)
 Overthrust (When pressure is very great a fracture occurs in the fold
and one limb is pushed forward over the other limb forming an
overthrust fold)
 Monocline (folds with only one limb)

Types of Folds
Anticline Fold
 A fold with the oldest
beds in the middle
 Generally arched
shaped, with limbs
dipping away the center

Types of Folds
Syncline Fold
 A fold with the youngest beds in the middle
 Generally trough shaped, with limbs dipping toward the
center

Types of Folds
Monocline Fold
 Folds with only one limb
 Often Associated with faults

Types of Folds
Isocline Fold
 The two limbs of a fold are essentially parallel to each other and are
nearly vertical

Types of Folds
Overturned Fold
 The limbs of overturned folds dip in the same direction and one limb has
been tilted beyond vertical

Types of Folds
Recumbent Fold
 The folding is so intense that axial plane becomes almost horizontal.

Types of Folds
Overthrust Fold
 When pressure is very great a fracture occurs in the fold and one limb is
pushed forward over the other limb forming an overthrust fold

Fractures
 Fracture may be defined as the surfaces

along which rocks or minerals have
broken; they are therefore surfaces across
which the material has lost cohesion.
 These surfaces are approximately planar.
 The relative displacement of originally
adjacent points across the fractures is
small compared to the fracture length.

Types of Fractures
Three types of fractures have been identified:
 Mode-I fractures (joints) it is the extensional fractures and formed by
opening with no displacement parallel to the fracture.
 Mode-II and Mode-III are shear fractures. These are
faults like fractures one of them is strike -slip and the other is dip-
slip
 Same fracture can exhibit both Mode-II and Mode-III in different
parts of the region.

Joints
 As we learned in our discussion of physical weathering, joints are fractures in
rock that show no slippage or offset along the fracture.
 Joints are usually planar features, so their orientation can be described as a
strike and dip. They form from as a result of extensional stress acting on brittle
rock. Such stresses can be induced by cooling of rock (volume decreases as
temperature decreases) or by relief of pressure as rock is eroded above thus
removing weight.
 Joints provide pathways for water and thus pathways for chemical weathering
attack on rocks. If new minerals are precipitated from water flowing in the
joints, this will form a vein. Many veins observed in rock are mostly either
quartz or calcite, but can contain rare minerals like gold and silver.
 Because joints provide access of water to rock, rates of weathering and/or
erosion are usually higher along joints and this can lead to differential erosion.

Joints
 From an engineering point of

view, joints are important
structures to understand. Since
they are zones of weakness, their
presence is critical when
building anything from dams to
highways. For dams, the water
could leak out through the joints
leading to dam failure. For
highways the joints may separate
and cause rock falls and
landslides.

Types of Joints
Joints can be broadly classified as:
 Systematic joints: have a subparallel orientation and regular spacing.
 Nonsystematic joints: joints that do not share a common orientation and those
highly curved and irregular fracture surfaces. They occur in most area but are not
easily related to a recognizable stress.
 Joint set: joints that share a similar orientation in same area.
 Joint system: two or more joints sets in the same area.
Some times both systematic and nonsystematic joints formed in the same area at the
same time but nonsystematic joints usually terminate at systematic joints which
indicates that nonsystematic joints formed later.

Types of Joints

Types of Joints
Classification based on the relative attitude

of joints:
1. Strike Joint 2. Dip Joint 3. Oblique Joint
4. Tension Joint 5. Shear Joint
 When the joints are parallel to the
strike and dip of adjacent beds, they
are called Strike Joints or Dip Joints,
respectively.
 If the strike direction of joints is
parallel neither to the strike nor dip
direction of adjacent beds, then such
joints are called Oblique Joints.
 If the strike direction, dip direction and
dip amount) coincides completely with
the attitude of adjacent beds, they are
called bedding joints.

Faults
 The relative movement of the Plates is generally associated with one of the three
types of Plate boundaries. The movement, however, at a particular location can be
quite complicated. Locally, the movement between two portions of the crust will
occur along a fault.
 Fault is a fracture along which the blocks of rock on either side have moved
relative to one another parallel to the fracture.
 Understanding faults is useful in design for long-term stability of dams, bridges,
buildings and power plants. The study of fault helps understand mountain
building.
 Faults may be hundred of meters or a few centimeters in length.
 Faults may extend from the ground surface to depths of several tens of kilometers.
 Faults may be observable on ground surface, or may be buried.
 Presence of faults DOES NOT necessarily mean that earthquakes will occur. Their
movement may be aseismic (very slow movement that does not cause
earthquakes) or the faults may be inactive (no movement).
Fault’s Terminology
 Fault plane: Surface that the movement has taken
place within the fault. On this surface the dip and strike
of the fault is measured.
 Hanging wall: The rock mass resting on the fault plane.
 Footwall: The rock mass beneath the fault plane.
 Slip: Describes the movement parallel to the
fault plane.
 Dipslip: Describes the up and down
movement parallel to the dip direction of the fault.
 Strike slip: Applies where movement is parallel to strike
of the fault plane.
 Oblique slip: Is a combination of strike slip and dip slip.
 Netslip (truedisplacement): Is the total amount
of
motion measured parallel to the direction of motion.
Fault’s Terminology
 Scarp: The exposed upward block forms a cliff-like feature known as a fault
scarp. A scarp may range from a few to hundreds of meters in height and their
length may continue for 300 or more kilometers (around 200 miles).
Scarp
A normal dip-slip fault

Fault’s Geometry
 Strike(): It is the horizontal line produced by the intersection of the fault
plane and a horizontal plane. In order to be unambiguous, the convention is to
measure the angle of the strike such that the hanging wall is to be right (i.e.
always measured clockwise from North).
 Dip (): It is the downward slope of the fault plane; angle between fault plane
and the horizontal plane measured perpendicular to strike.
 Rake/Slip (): The direction of slip on a
rupture can be defined unambiguously by a single
angle known as the rake or slip. The rake is the
angle between the strike direction and the vector of
slip of the hanging wall with respect to the fault wall.
It is measured in the plane of the fault, positive upwards.
A normal fault rupture has a rake of –90° and a reverse rupture a rake of +90°.
Types of Faults
Faults can be divided into several
different types depending on the
direction of relative displacement.
Since faults are planar features, the
concept of strike and dip also
applies, and thus the strike and dip
of a fault plane can be measured.
One division of faults is between
dip-slip where the
faults, measured along
displacement is of the fault, and
the dip direction
strike-slip faults where the
displacement is horizontal, parallel
to the strike of the fault.
Types of Faults
Normal Fault
 The hanging wall has moved down
relative to the footwall.
 Associated with tensile stresses in crust.
 The faulting in Oceanic Ridge
earthquakes is predominantly Normal.
 Horst – raised block of material bounded
by two normal faults. is
 Graben – trough (valley) bounded by predominantly
two normal faults.

Types of Faults
Normal Fault
FOOTWALL
HANGINGWALL

Types of Faults
Reverse Fault
 In reverse fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to foot wall.
 Dip angle is generally more than 45o.
 Associated with compressive stresses in crust.

Types of Faults
Thrust Fault
 A special type of reverse fault, in
which the dip of the fault is small
(large movements). Dip angle is
generally less than 30o.
 Associated with
compressive stresses in crust.
 Displacement can be 100’s km
(~60 miles).
 Faulting in subduction zones are
mainly thrust-type.
 Typically associated with folds.
Thrust Fault
Types of Faults
Strike Slip Fault
 Movement occurs parallel to strike.
 Associated with shear stresses in crust.
There are two types of strike slip faults:
 Right lateral strike-slip fault (dextral):
Where the side opposite the observer moves
to the right.
 Left lateral strike-slip fault (sinistral):
Where the side opposite the observer moves
to the left.
 Note that the same sense of movement will also
be observed from the other side of the fault.

Types of Faults
Oblique Fault
 Movement with both dip-slip and strike-slip
components.

The End
Thank You


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Week No.

Dr. Muhammad Waseem

Department of Civil Engineering

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

1. A Text Book of Engg.

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 To enable students to apply the

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 Basic terminologies in Geological Structures

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Week No. 05:

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the

 Geological Structure are dynamically-produced patterns or arrangements

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 Rock deformation. refers to the tilting, bending or fracturing of a rock.

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Angle of inclination with the horizontal plane is called Dip.

Strike is the formed by the intersection of with the horizontal plane

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 When rocks deform in a ductile

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

• The wavy undulations in the rock beds (folds)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 Fracture may be defined as the surfaces

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

 From an engineering point of

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Classification based on the relative attitude

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-217)

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