ENGINE ASSEMBLY & INTEGRATION ENTITY

TECHNICAL SEMINAR

Presentation on
Orbital Mechanics – A Glance
 Presentation on
Orbital Mechanics – A Glance
Science / Scientific Method

It is systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as

much detail and depth as possible, and use the knowledge so gained to
predict , modify and control the phenomena.

Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from what we

see around us. The curiosity to learn about the world, unravelling the secrets
of the nature is the first step towards the discovery of science.

Scientific Methods involves several interconnected steps:

Systematic observations, controlled experiments, qualitative and

quantitative reasoning, mathematical modelling, prediction and verification
or falsification of theories.

The interplay of theory and observation is basic to the progress of

science.
The Ancients
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
He is sometimes called the grandfather of
science. He believed in a geocentric
Universe and that the planets and stars
were perfect spheres though Earth itself was
not. He further thought that the movements
of the planets and stars must be circular
since they were perfect and if the motions
were circular, then they could go on forever.
Today, we know that none of this is the case,
but Aristotle was so respected that these
wrong answers were taught for a very long
time.
Aristotle, outside of astronomy, was a
champion observer. He was one of the first
to study plants, animals, and people in a
scientific way, and he did believe in
experimenting whenever possible and
developed logical ways of thinking.
 Ptolemy was an astronomer and
mathematician. He believed that the Earth
was the center of the Universe. The word
for earth in Greek is geo, so we call this
idea a "geocentric" theory. Even starting
with this incorrect theory, he was able to
combine what he saw of the stars'
movements with mathematics, especially
geometry, to predict the movements of the
planets. In order to make his predictions
true, he worked out that the planets must
move in epicycles, smaller circles, and the
Earth itself moved along an equant. None
of this was true, but it made the math work
for his predictions. This flawed view of the
Universe was accepted for many
centuries.

Claudius Ptolemy (AD 83 – c.168)

 Well over a thousand years later,
Nicolaus Copernicus came up with a
radical way of looking at the
Universe. His heliocentric system
put the Sun (helio) at the center of
our system. He was not the first to
have this theory. His ideas, including
the revelation that the Earth rotates
on its axis, were too different for
most of the scholars of his time to
accept. They used only parts of his
theory. Those who did study his work
intact often did so in secret. They
were called Copernicans.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543)

 Tycho Brahe proposed a "geo-heliocentric"
system in which the Sun and Moon orbited
the Earth, while the other planets orbited
the Sun. Brahe's system had many of the
same observational and computational
advantages that Copernicus' system had,
and both systems also could accommodate
the phases of Venus, although Galilei had yet
to discover them. His system provided a safe
position for astronomers who were
dissatisfied with older models but were
reluctant to accept the heliocentrism and the
Earth's motion

Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601)

The Copernicus Solar System

Image: Courtesy of tychobrahe.com

Tycho Brahe's Uraniborg

Observatory and 90°
Star Sighting Quadrant
 Tycho worked closely with Johannes
Kepler his assistant. Kepler was a
convinced Copernican. After Tycho's
death, Kepler used his records of the
motion of Mars to deduce his own laws
of planetary motion.[Kepler's application
of these two laws to obtain astronomical
tables of unprecedented accuracy
(the Rudolphine Tables) provided
powerful support for
is heliocentric model of the solar
system.

Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)


Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)
Galileo Galilei was
an Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer,
philosopher, and mathematician who
played a major role in the scientific
revolution of the seventeenth century. He
has been called the "father of
observational astronomy", His
contributions to observational astronomy
include the telescopic confirmation of
the phases of Venus, the discovery of the
four largest satellites of Jupiter (named
the Galilean moons in his honour), and the
observation and analysis of sunspots.
Galileo's vigorous support
of heliocentric and Copernicanism was
controversial during his lifetime, when
most subscribed to either geocentrism or
the Tychonic system. He met with
opposition from astronomers, who
doubted heliocentrism.
 Sir Isaac Newton was an
English physicist and mathematician who is
widely recognized as one of the most
influential scientists of all time and a key
figure in the scientific revolution. His
book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687,
laid the foundations for classical mechanics.
Newton's Principia formulated the laws of
motion and universal gravitation, which
dominated scientists' view of the physical
universe for the next three centuries. By
deriving Kepler's laws of planetary
motion from his mathematical description of
gravity, and then using the same principles to
account for the trajectories of comets,
the tides, the precession of the equinoxes,
and other phenomena, Newton removed the
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) last doubts about the validity of the
heliocentric model of the Solar System.
 He studied the three-body
problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon
(1764) and the movement of
Jupiter’s satellites (1766), and in
1772 found the special-case
solutions to this problem that yield
what are now known as Lagrangian
points.

Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813)

Einstein
Geodesics: The Science and Art
of 4D Curved Space Trajectories.
Kepler’s First Law

Every orbit is
an ellipse
with the Sun
(main body)
located at
one foci.
Kepler’s Second Law
Day 40
Day 50 Day 30

Day 60
Day 20

Day 70

Day 80

Day 90

Day 10
Day 100

Day 110 Day 0

A line between an orbiting Day 120
body and primary body
sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time.
Kepler’s Third Law
This defines the
relationship of
Orbital Period &
Average Radius EXAMPLE:
R2
for any two
Earth
bodies in orbit.
R1 P1 P2 P = 1 Year
For a given body,
the orbital period R = 1 AU
and average
distance for the
Mars
second orbiting
body is: P = 1.88 Years
R = 1.52 AU
P = Orbital Period
P2 = R 3 R = Average Radius
Kinematics & Newton’s Law
s = Distance traveled in time, t
v0 = Initial Velocity at t = 0
v = Final Velocity at time = t • v(t) = v0 + at
a = Acceleration
F = Force acting on the object • s = v0 t + (1/2)at2

𝜇 = 𝐺𝑀
• v(t)2= v0 2+ 2as
µ = Kepler’s Constant
• F = ma
G = 6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2/kg2

ME = 5.98 x 10 24 kg • 𝑭= 𝑮𝑴𝒎
ൗ𝒓𝟐
22
Centrifugal force = mrω 2
= mv2 / r
 To find Orbital Velocity
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚 𝑣2
= 500 km
𝑅2 𝑅

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=
𝑅
Radius of the Earth = 6378 km

6.67 10 11  5.98  10 24

v  7908m / s
6378  103

6.67  10 11  5.98  10 24

v  7615m / s
 6378  500) 103
Time period for orbiting

𝑑 500 km
𝑣=
𝑡
𝑑
t=
𝑣
2𝜋 (6878 𝑥 10 24)
t=
7615
t = 5675 s
t = 1.576 hours
 GeoSynchronous Orbit
A geosynchronous orbit (sometimes
abbreviated GSO) is an orbit around
the Earth with an orbital period of
one sidereal day, intentionally matching
the Earth's sidereal rotation period
(approximately 23 hours 56 minutes and
4 seconds).

The synchronization of rotation and

orbital period means that, for an observer
on the surface of the Earth, an object in
geosynchronous orbit returns to exactly
the same position in the sky after a period
of one sidereal day
Author Arthur C. Clarke
Sidereal time : time scale that is
based on Earth's rate of
rotation measured relative to
the fixed stars

t = 86164 s

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=
𝑅𝐸 + ℎ

𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
𝑣
2π 𝑅𝐸 + ℎ
=
𝑡 km
h = 35,794
Potential Energy & Kinetic Energy
of an Elliptical orbit

i f

𝐺𝑀𝑚
PE = - 𝑅

𝑚𝑣 2
KE = 2
PEi + KEi = PEf + KEf
 Escape Velocity

𝐺𝑀𝑚
PE = - 𝑅
𝑚𝑣 2
KE =
2

PEi + KEi = 0

2 𝐺𝑀
Ve =
𝑅𝐸
Keplerian Elements e, a, and v (3 of 6)
e 150°
120°
90°
Eccentricity
(0.0 to 1.0)
v
True anomaly
(angle)
Apogee a Perigee
180° 0°
Semi-major
axis
(km)
e=0.8 vrs e=0.0

Apo/Peri gee – Earth e defines ellipse shape

Apo/Peri lune – Moon
Apo/Peri helion – Sun a defines ellipse size
Apo/Peri apsis – non-specific v defines satellite angle from perigee
Inclination i (4th Keplerian Element)

Intersection of the

i
equatorial and
(above)
Inclination
orbital planes (angle)

(below)
Ascending
Node
Equatorial Plane
( defined by Earth’s equator )

Sample inclinations
Ascending Node is where a 0° -- Geostationary
satellite crosses the equatorial 52° -- ISS
plane moving south to north 98° -- Mapping
Right Ascension of the ascending node Ω and
Argument of perigee ω (5th and 6th Elements)

Ω = angle from
vernal equinox to
ascending node on
the equatorial plane
Perigee Direction
ω = angle from
ascending node to
perigee on the
orbital plane

ω
Ω
Ascending
Node

[1]Right Ascension is the astronomical

Vernal Equinox term for celestial (star) longitude.
The Six Keplerian Elements

a = Semi-major axis (usually in

kilometers or nautical miles)

e = Eccentricity (of the elliptical

orbit)

v = True anomaly The angle

between perigee and satellite in
the orbital plane at a specific
time

i = Inclination The angle between

the orbital and equatorial planes
Ω = Right Ascension (longitude)
of the ascending node The
angle from the Vernal Equinox
vector to the ascending node on
the equatorial plane Shape, Size,
w = Argument of perigee The Orientation,
and Satellite
angle measured between the Location.
ascending node and perigee
Hohmann Transfer Orbit

Hohmann transfer orbit

intersects both orbits.
Requires co-planar initial
and ending orbits.
After 180°, second burn
establishes the new orbit.
Can be used to reduce or
increase orbit altitudes.
By far the most common
orbital maneuver.
 Orbital Plane Changes
Burn must take place where the
initial and target planes intersect.
Even a small amount of plane
change requires lots of ΔV
Less ΔV required at higher altitudes
θ (e.g., slower orbital velocities).
Often combined with Hohmann
transfer or rendezvous maneuver.

Simple Plane Change Formula (No Hohmann component):

Plane Change ΔV = 2 x Vorbit x sin(θ/2)

Example: Orbit Velocity = 7000m/s, Target Inclination Change = 30°

Plane Change ΔV = 2 x 7000m/s x sin(30°/ 2)
Plane Change ΔV = 3623m/s
Fast Transfer Orbit

Requires less time due to

higher energy transfer orbit.
Also faster since transfer is
complete in less 180°.
Can be used to reduce or
increase orbit altitudes.
Less common than Hohmann
Typically an upper stage
restart where excess fuel is
often available.
Geostationary Transfer Orbit ‘GTO’
Requires plane change
and circularizing burns.
Less plane changing is
2. Plane change required when launched
from near the equator.
where GTO plane
intersects GEO
plane

1. launch to
‘GTO’

3. Hohmann
circularizing burn
3. Second ‘Super GTO’
Hohmann burn
circularizes at
GEO GEO Initial orbit has greater
Target apogee than standard
Orbit GTO.
Plane change at much
higher altitude requires
far less ΔV.
PRO: Less overall ΔV
from higher inclination
launch sites.
CON: Takes longer to
establish the final orbit.

1. Launch to
2. Plane change
‘Super GTO’
plus initial
Hohmann burn
 Low Thrust Orbit Transfer
A series of plane and altitude changes. Continuous electric engine propulsion.

PROs: Lower mass propulsion system. Same system used for orbital maintenance.
CONs: Weeks or even months to reach final orbit.
Classification of orbits
Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits with altitudes from 160 to 2,000 km (100–
1,240 miles).

Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from

2,000 km (1,240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometers
(22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. These are "most
commonly at 20,200 kilometers (12,600 mi), or 20,650 kilometers (12,830 mi), with
an orbital period of 12 hours.“

Both Geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and Geostationary orbit (GEO) are orbits
around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. All geosynchronous and
geostationary orbits have a semi-major axis of 42,164 km (26,199 mi).[4] All
geostationary orbits are also geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous orbits
are geostationary. A geostationary orbit stays exactly above the equator, whereas a
geosynchronous orbit may swing north and south to cover more of the Earth's
surface. Both complete one full orbit of Earth per sidereal day (relative to the stars,
not the Sun).

High Earth orbit: Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous

orbit 35,786 km (22,240 miles).
 e=0

e = 0.4
e=0 w = 180
i = 0 e = 0.6
w = 90

Visibility of Geo Synchronous satellite from Earth station for different eccentricity and
inclination or argument of perigee
Inclined orbit:
An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not 0.

Polar orbit:
An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each
revolution. Therefore, it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
Polar Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO): A nearly polar orbit that passes
the equator at the same local solar time on every pass. Useful for image-
taking satellites because shadows will be the same on every pass.

Non-inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination is equal to zero with respect to

some plane of reference.
Ecliptic orbit: A non-inclined orbit with respect to the ecliptic.
Equatorial orbit: A non-inclined orbit with respect to the equator.
Near equatorial orbit: An orbit whose inclination with respect to the equatorial
plane is nearly zero. This orbit allows for rapid revisit times (for a single orbiting
spacecraft) of near equatorial ground sites.
Halo orbits and Lissajous orbits:
These are orbits around a Lagrangian
point. Lagrange points are shown in the
diagram , and orbits near these points allow
a spacecraft to stay in constant relative
position with very little use of fuel. Orbits
around the L1 point are used by spacecraft
that want a constant view of the Sun, such
as the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory.
Orbits around L2 are used by missions that
always want both Earth and the Sun behind
them. This enables a single shield to block
radiation from both Earth and the Sun,
allowing passive cooling of sensitive
instruments.