ROCKETS AND MISSION ANALYSIS

Orbital Mechanics
Hohmann Transfer Orbit Summary
REVIEW OF CONIC SECTIONS
 Kepler’s Laws
Law 1:
The orbit of a planet/comet/spacecraft about the sun is an ellipse with
the sun’s center of mass at one focus

Law 2:
A line joining a planet and sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time

Law 3:
The squares of the periods of planets are proportional to the cubes of
the their semi-major axes
 ORBITAL MECHANICS: SUMMARY
Equation for conic sections (polar coordinates)

Force balance on orbiting body, m, about larger

body M’ under influence of gravity

=eccentricity, h=angular momentum (constant)

Conservation of orbital energy = constant

Orbital energy in terms of semi-major axis

Eccentricity in terms of angular momentum and

orbital energy
Conic Section Eccentricity Orbital Energy
Ellipse <1 E<0
Parabola =1 E=0
Hyperbola >1 E>0
Circle =0 E = -GmM’/2r
 SUMMARY COMMENTS

Hyperbolic Parabolic Elliptic

Circle

Period
 INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORY: HOHMANN ORBIT
• Main idea through example of moving spacecraft from LEO → GEO
– Average radius of Earth is about 6,378 km
– LEO is at 300 km above sea level or r1 = 6,678 km from center of Earth
– GEO is at 35,786 km above sea level or r2 = 42,164 km from center of Earth

• Step 1: Calculate Vc1 and Vc2 at r1 and r2, respectively

• Step 2: Add some V1 to into elliptical transfer, called GTO

– Perpendicular to r1
– Impulse applied at perigee of ellipse, spacecraft moving fastest
– Spacecraft arrives at apogee moving slowest

• Step 3: Apply some V2 to circularize orbit

– If this is not done, spacecraft will stay in elliptical orbit
 WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

NOT EVEN CLOSE TO SCALE

WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

GEO

EARTH

LEO, 300 km
WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

GEO

LEO
EARTH
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO → GEO
GEO
• Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM 
Vc1 
r1 LEO

r1
• Desired GEO orbit has radius r2
and velocity Vc2
Vc1
• At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s
r2
• At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s

• Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO → GEO
GEO
• Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM 
Vc1 
r LEO

r1
• Desired GEO orbit has radius r2
and velocity Vc2
Vc1
• At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s
r2
• At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s

• Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO → GEO
GEO
• Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM 
Vc1 
r LEO

r1
• Desired GEO orbit has radius r2
and velocity Vc2
Vc1
• At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s
r2
• At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s

• Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO → GEO
GEO
• Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM 
Vc1 
r LEO

r1
• Desired GEO orbit has radius r2 and
velocity Vc2
Vc1
• At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s r2
• At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s

• Accomplish this using Hohmann

Transfer Orbit
– Special illustrative case
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• Impulsive V1 is applied to get on Vc2
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
at perigee: GEO

2 2 
V1   
r1 r1  r2 r1
GTO
LEO
  GM 
r1
• Leave LEO (r1) with a total
velocity of V1 V1
Vc1
r2 V1
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
Vc2
• Impulsive V1 is applied to get on Apogee
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
at perigee: GEO

2 2 
V1   
r1 r1  r2 r1
GTO
LEO
  GM 
r1
• Leave LEO (r1) with a total
velocity of V1 V1
Vc1
r2 V1
• Transfer orbit is elliptical shape
– Perigee located at r1
– Apogee located at r2
Perigee
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• Arrive at GEO (apogee) with V2 Vc2
V2 V2
• When arriving at GEO, which is at GEO
apogee or elliptical transfer orbit,
must apply some V2 in order to
circularize:
GTO
 2 2
V2    LEO
r2 r2 r1  r2
r1
  GM 
Vc1 V1
• This is exactly the V that should
be applied to circularize the orbit at r2 V1
GEO (r2)
– Vc2 = V2 + V2
• If this V is not applied, spacecraft
will continue on dashed elliptical
trajectory
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
• Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and Vc2
velocity Vc1 V2 V2
GM  GEO
Vc1 
r

• Desired GEO orbit has radius r2

GTO
and velocity Vc2
LEO
• Impulsive V1 is applied to get on
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
at perigee:2  2  r1
V1   
r1 r1  r2 r1

Vc1 V1
• Coast to apogee and apply r2 V1
impulsiveV2: 2  2
V2   
r2 r2 r1  r2

  GM 
 SUMMARY
• Hohmann Transfer Orbit
– Minimum energy trajectory
– Least fuel consumption (cheapest)
– Tends to be longest
– Reference Figure 10.16 in textbook

• Oberth Transfer Orbit

– Same basic idea: directly launch into transfer orbit
– Larger V at r1
– Lower overall V
– Minimum propulsive requirement to arrive in orbit

• General Comments
– Time does not appear in these expression
• Depends on orbital characteristics
– No Drag, No maneuvering near planet
– Faster trajectories require greater Vtotal
BOEING DELTA IV COMPONENTS

http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/delta/delta4/d4h_demo/book04.html
 OVERVIEW
• During LEO → GEO transfer, upper stage coasts for several hours
• Upper stage must re-start at conclusion of coast phase for insertion

Typical Delta 4 Medium launch sequence to

Delta-4M+(4,2) (Delta-4240)
geosynchronous transfer orbit from Cape
http://www.skyrocket.de/space/ http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0201/28delta4mate/delta4medium.html
 2nd STAGE OVERVIEW

LH2 Tank

LOX Tank

http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0201/28delta4mate/delta4upperstage.html http://www.pratt-whitney.com/prod_space_rl10.asp
OVERVIEW: WHAT CAN HAPPEN INSIDE TANKS?

• Stage exposed to solar heating

• Propellants (LH2 and LOX) may
thermally stratify
• Propellants may boil
• Slosh events during maneuvers

http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/delta/delta4/d4h_demo/book14.html
XSS-10 view of Delta II rocket: An Air Force Research Laboratory XSS-10 micro-satellite uses its onboard camera system to view the second stage of the
Boeing Delta II rocket during mission operations Jan. 30. (Photo courtesy of Boeing.), http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/xss.htm
 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
• Analytical and computational thermal modeling of cryogenic rocket propellants
• Examine effects parametrically

LH2 Tank

LOX Tank
LEO TO GEO USING LOW THRUST