UNIT II

LIME – CEMENT – AGGREGATES – MORTAR

Lime – Preparation of lime mortar – Cement Ingredients –
Manufacturing process – Types and
Grades – Properties of cement and Cement mortar
Hydration – Compressive strength – Tensile
strength – Fineness– Soundness and consistency – Setting
time – Industrial byproducts – Fly ash –
Aggregates – Natural stone aggregates – Crushing
strength – Impact strength – Flakiness Index
– Elongation Index – Abrasion Resistance – Grading –
Sand Bulking.
 LIME
 Until the invention of Portland cement, lime was
used as the chief cementing material in the
building construction both for mortar and
plasters.
 Most of the ancient palaces, forts, temples,
monuments, etc., have been built with lime.
 Though Portland cement has almost replaced
lime, but still at places, where lime is available
locally and during the period of shortage of
ordinary Portland cement lime provides a cheap
and alternative to cement.
 Usually, lime in free state is not found in nature.
 SOURCES OF LIME
The lime is not generally found in nature in
the free state but it is obtained by burning
one of the following materials:
Limestone found in limestone hills.
Limestone builders found in the beds of old
rivers.
Kankar found below ground.
Shells of sea animals.
White chalk is pure limestone and kankar is an
impure limestone.
 PROPERTIES OF LIME
Following are the properties of good quality
lime, which makes it suitable for use as an
engineering materials:
Easily workable.
Provides strength to the masonry.
Possesses good plasticity.
Offers good resistance to moisture.
Stiffens early.
An excellent cement and adheres to the masonry units
perfectly.
Lime masonry proves durable due to low shrinkage in
drying.
 USES OF LIME
Following are the various uses of lime:
It is used as a matrix for concrete.
It is used as a binding material in
mortars.
It is used for plastering walls, ceilings,
etc.
It is employed for white washing.
It is used for knotting of timber work
before painting,
It is used in the manufacture of paints.
It is used for stabilizing the soils.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
 According to the percentage of calcium oxide
and clayey impurities in it, lime can be
classified as lean, hydraulic and pure lime.
 Since magnesium oxide slakes slowly, an
increase in its percentage decreases rate of
hydration and so is with clayey impurities as
well.
 Poor lime: It consists of CaO + MgO 80 to
85% with MgO less than 5% and clayey
impurities of about more than 7 per cent in the
form of silica, alumina and iron oxide.
 It sets on absorbing CO2 from atmosphere.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
Characteristics of poor lime:
1.Slaking requires more time and so it hydrates
slowly.
2.Its expansion is less than that of fat lime.
3. It makes thin paste with water.
4. Setting and hardening is very slow.
5. The colour varies from yellow to grey.
Uses of poor lime:
 It gives poor and inferior mortar and is
recommended for less important structure.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
 Hydraulic lime: It is a product obtained by moderate
burning (900°-1100°C) of raw limestone which
contains small proportions of clay (silica and
alumina) 5-30 per cent and iron oxide in chemical
combination with the calcium oxide content (CaO
+ MgO 70-80% with MgO less than 5%).
 In slaking considerable care is required to provide
just sufficient water and no excess, since an excess
would cause the lime to harden.
 Depending on the percentage of clay present these
are classified further as, feebly, moderately and
eminently hydraulic limes. It sets under water.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
 Fat lime: It is soft lime (CaO + MgO more than
85% with MgO less than 4%) obtained by the
calcination of nearly pure limestone, marble, white
chalk, oolitic limestone and calcareous tufa.
 Also known as white washing lime should not
have impurities of clay and stones, more than 5
per cent.
 Fat lime is nearly pure calcium oxide and when it
is hydrated with the required amount of water the
solid lumps fall to a soft fine powder of Ca(OH)2
and the high heat of hydration produces a cloud of
steam.
 It sets on absorbing CO2, from atmosphere.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
Characteristics of fat lime:
 Slaking is vigorous and the volume becomes 2-3
times.
 It sets slowly in contact with air, and hence is not
suitable for thick walls or in wet climate.
 If kept under water a fat lime paste does not lose
its high plasticity and consequently does not set
and hard.
 sp. gr. of pure lime is about 3.4.
Uses of fat lime:
 Fat lime finds extensive use in making mortar,
matrix for concrete, base for distemper and in
white wash, manufacturing of cement, and
metallurgical industry.
 PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
 Lime mortar is made by mixing lime, sand and water.
 Lime used for mortar may be fat lime (quick or
hydrated lime) or hydraulic lime.
 Fat lime has high calcium oxide content. Its hardening
depends on loss of water and absorption of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and possible
recrystallisation in due course.
 Hydraulic lime contains silica, alumina and iron oxide
in small quantities.
 When mixed with water it forms putty or mortar
having the property of setting and hardening under
water.
 Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar for plastering,
while hydraulic lime is used for masonry construction
and are most suitable for construction of chimneys and
lightly loaded superstructure of buildings.
 PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
Manual mixing:
 Lime and sand in required quantities are
placed on an impervious floor or in a tank
(Fig. 12. 2).
 The constituents are thoroughly mixed dry
by turning them up and down with spades.
 Water is added and mixing is done again
with spades till mortar of uniform colour
and consistency is obtained.
PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
 PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
Mill mixing:
 Mills used for preparing lime mortars in
undeveloped countries may be a chakki or
ghanni run by bullocks (Fig. 12.3) while a pan
mill (Fig. 12.4) is used in developed
countries.
 In the case of ghanni the required quantity of
ingredients in the form of putty is put in the
trench and grinding for 100 to 200 revolutions
is carried out by moving stone roller.
 The operation takes about 2 to 3 hours for
each batch of mix; the time required in a Pan
mill is much less.
PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR
PREPARATION OF LIME MORTAR

Precautions:
 Lime mortar or putty should be kept moist
till use and in no case its drying is
allowed.
 The mortar made of hydraulic lime should
be consumed within one day and that with
fat lime within 2-3 days.
 CEMENT
 Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive
materials which are capable of bonding together particles
of solid matter into a compact durable mass.
 For civil engineering works, they are restricted to
calcareous cements containing compounds of lime as
their chief constituent, its primary function being to bind
the fine (sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate particles
together.
 Cements used in construction industry may be classified
as hydraulic and non hydraulic.
 The latter does not set and harden in water such as non-
hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water, e g.
Plaster of Paris.
 The hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a
product which is stable. Portland cement is one such.
 CEMENT INGREDIENTS
PERCENTAGE RANGE
INGREDIENTS
Lime 62 62 to 67

Silica 22 17 to 25

Alumina 5 3 to 8

Calcium sulphate 4 3 to 4

Iron oxide 3 3 to 4

Magnesia 2 0.1 to 3

Sulphur 1 1 to 3

Alkalies 1 0.2 to 1
 Functions Of Cement Ingredients
Lime:
This is the important ingredient of cement and
its proportion is to be carefully maintained.
The lime in excess makes the cement unsound
and causes the cement to expand and
disintegrate.
 On the other hand , if lime is in deficiency.
The strength of cement is decreased and it
causes to set quickly.
Functions Of Cement Ingredients
Silica:
This is also an important ingredient of
cement and it gives or imparts strength to
the cement due to the formation of
dicalcium and tricalcium silicates.
If silica is present in excess quantity, the
strength of cement increases but at the same
times its setting time is prolonged.
 Functions Of Cement Ingredients
Alumina:
This ingredient imparts quick setting
property to the cement.
 It acts a flux and it lower the clinkering
temperature.
However, the high temperature is essential
for the formation of a suitable type of cement
and hence, the alumina should not be present
in excess amount as it weakens the cement.
 Functions Of Cement Ingredients
Calcium Sulphate:
 This ingredient is in the form of gypsum
and its function is to increase the initial
setting time of cement.
Iron Oxide:
 This ingredient imparts colour, hardness
and strength to the cement.
Magnesia:
 This ingredient, if present in small
amounts, imparts hardness and colour to the
cement, a high content of magnesia makes
the cement unsound.
Functions Of Cement Ingredients
Sulphur:
 A very small amount of sulphur is useful in
making sound cement. If it is in excess, it
causes cement to become unsound.
Alkalies:
 Most of the alkalies present in raw
materials are carried away by the flue gases
during heating and the cement contains
only a small amount of alkalies.
 HYDRATION OF CEMENT
 The chemical reaction between cement and water is
known as hydration of cement.
 The reaction takes place between the active
components of cement (C4AF, C3A, C3S and C2S)
and water.
 The factors responsible for the physical properties of
concrete are the extent of hydration of cement and the
resultant microstructure of the hydrated cement.
 When the cement comes in contact with water, the
hydration products start depositing on the outer
periphery of the nucleus of hydrated cement.
 This reaction proceeds slowly for 2-5 hours and is
called induction or dormant period.
 CEMENT MORTAR
 Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing
cement, sand and water in desired proportions.
 Portland cement and blast furnace slag cement
form excellent mortars for walls built with
bricks, stones and large blocks.
 Puzzolana Portland cement and sulphate-
resisting cement form mortar which are used
for constructions exposed to aggressive and
waste waters.
 Cement mortars are used for plastering,
rendering smooth finishes and damp proof
courses.
 Cement mortar
Preparation: Small quantities of mortar are mixed manually;
mechanical mixers may be used for large quantities.
For manual mixing, sand is sieved, cleaned with water to
remove dirt and dust and dried.
 This dry sand is laid uniformly, on a pucca platform, over
which cement is uniformly spread.
 The whole mass is then thoroughly mixed with spades till it
becomes uniform in colour.
 A depression is then made in the middle of the mix and
required quantity of water is added.
 The dry mix from the sides is moved and placed on the
edges of the depression formed till the water is completely
absorbed by the mix.
 The wet mix is then worked with spades to give a uniform
consistency to the mortar.
 Cement mortar
For mechanical mixing the calculated
quantity of cement, sand and water are fed
into the cylindrical container of the mixer.
A rotar with blades, inside the container,
rotates and thoroughly mixes th ingredients.
A typical Turbulent mixer is shown in
Fig.12.1.
Cement mortar
 Cement mortar
Precautions: Cement mortar should be of
uniform and workable consistency.
It should be consumed within 30 minutes
from the instant of adding water to the mix.
The bricks, stones and blocks should be fully
saturated in water before laying.
The masonry and plastered or pointed
surface should be kept completely wet by
sprinkling water for at least 7 days.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
OF CEMENT

There are three operations involved in

manufacture of portland cement:

 Mixing of raw materials

 Burning
 Grinding
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF
CEMENT
 Calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are
used in the manufacture of Portland cement.
 The calcareous materials used are cement rock,
limestone, marl, chalk and marine shell.
 The argillaceous materials consist of silicates of
alumina in the form of clay, shale, slate and blast
furnace slag.
 From the above materials, others like lime,
silica, alumina, iron oxide and small quantities
of other chemicals are obtained.
 Cement can be manufactured either by dry
process or wet process.
 DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT
The dry process is adopted when the raw
materials are quite hard.
The process is slow and the product is costly.
Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder
separately and are mixed.
Water is added to make a thick paste.
The cakes of this paste, which contain about 14
per cent of moisture, are dried and are charged
into rotary kiln (Fig. 5.3).
The product obtained after calcination in rotary
kiln is called clinker.
ROTARY KILN
 DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT
 The clinker is obtained as a result of incipient fusion
and sintering at a temperature of about 1400°-
1500°C.
 Because ferric oxide has lower melting point than the
other oxides, it acts as a flux.
 Aeration of cement clinker, which is commonly
practised to slake free lime, also causes an absorption
of some moisture and carbon dioxide.
 Absorption of moisture tends to decrease the setting
whereas that of carbon dioxide accelerates setting.
 The clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve the
metastable compounds and their solid solutions —
dispersion of one solid in another — which are made
as the clinker is heated. the setting of cement.
 DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT
 Clinker is then cooled and ground in tube mills
(Fig. 5.4), where 2-3% of gypsum is added.
 Generally, cement is stored in bags of 50 kg. A
flow diagram of dry process is shown in Fig.
5.5.
 The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the
cement particles by interfering with the
process of hydration of the cement particles.
This retards the setting of cement.
ROTARY KILN
 Dry process
Calcareous Argillaceous
material material

crushing crushing

Fine grinding Fine grinding

storage storage

Mixing in correct
proportion
Storage tanks for raw mix

Coal dust
Rotary kiln

Formation of clinkers

cooler
gypsum
Grinding of clinkers in ball
mills and tube mills

Storage in silos

Weighing &packing in bags

distribution
 WET PROCESS OF CEMENT
 The operations in the wet process of cement
manufacture are mixing, burning and grinding. The
crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill (Fig. 5.6)
and a little water is added.
 On operating the ball mill, the steel balls in it
pulverize the raw materials which form a slurry with
water.
 This slurry is passed to silos (storage tanks), where the
proportioning of the compounds is adjusted to ensure
desired chemical composition.
 The corrected slurry having about 40 per cent
moisture content, is then fed into rotary kiln (Fig. 5.4)
where it loses moisture and forms into lumps or
nodules.
 These are finally burned at 1500-1600°C.
BALL MILL
WET PROCESS OF CEMENT
The nodules change to clinker at this
temperature. Clinker is cooled and then
ground in tube mills.
While grinding the clinker, about 3 per cent
gypsum is added.
The cement is then stored in silos from
where it is supplied.
 A flow diagram of manufacturing cement
by wet process is shown below.
 Wet process

Calcareous material Argillaceous material

limestone clay

crushing crushing

storage storage

channel

Grinding mill

Formation of slurry
 Correcting basin

Storage tank

pumping Coal dust

Rotary kiln

Formation of clinkers

cooler gypsum

Grinding of clinkers in ball mills

Storage in silos

Weighing and packing in bags

distribution
 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
 It is an excellent binding material.
 Gives strength to masonry.
 Possesses a good plasticity.
 Offers a good resistance to moisture.
 Easily workable.

 It hardens quickly after addition of water.

 The colour of cement should be uniform.

 Cement should be free from lumps.

 Cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between

fingers.
 If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it should
sink and should not f loat on the surface.
 Average compressive strength of cement mortar should not be lass than
11.5 N/mm2 at 3days and 17.5 N/mm2 at 7days.
 Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than 2 N/mm2 at
3days and 2.5 N/mm2 at 7days.
 The initial setting time should not be less than 30 mins and final setting time
should not be more than 600 mins.
 The loss of ignition should be within 4%

 The specific surface of cement should not be less than 2250 cm2 /gm.

 If the cement is sieved on 90 micron sieve for 15 mins, the residue by weight
should be within 10%.
 Uses of cement

 It is used for constructing engineering structures such as dams,

bridges, storage reservoirs.

 Used for making joints for pipes, drains.

 Used for preparation of foundations, footpath.

 Used for manufacture of precast pipes, fencing posts.

 Used for masonry work, plastering, pointing.

 Used for laying f loors, roofs and constructing lintels.

 Used for protecting the structures from weather.

 TYPES OF CEMENT
Rapid hardening cement
High alumina cement
Blast furnace cement
Expanding cement
Low heat cement
Quick setting cement
Sulphate resisting cement
White cement
Portland puzzolana cement(PPC)
Ordinary portland cement (OPC)
Coloured cement.
 Rapid hardening cement
Properties:
Burning the raw material at high
temperature.
Increased lime content.
Very fine grinding.
Sets rapidly.
Formwork can be removed earlier.
Uses:
 Structures requiring speed in construction.
 It is suitable for repair of roads and bridges
and when load is applied in a short period of
time.
 High alumina cement
PROPERTIES:
 It is not quick setting: initial setting time (minimum) is 30
minutes, even up to 2 hours.
 The final setting time should not exceed 600 minutes. It attains
strength in 24 hours, high early strength, high heat of hydration
and resistance to chemical attack.
 Compressive strength after one day is 30.0 N/mm2 and after 3
days it is 35.0 N/mm2.
 After setting and hardening, there is no free hydrated lime as in
the case of ordinary Portland cement.
 The fineness of the cement should not be less than 225 m2/kg.
The cement should not have expansion more than 5 mm.
Uses:
 It is resistant to the action of fire, sea water, acidic water and
sulphates and is used as refractory concrete, in industries and is
used widely for precasting.
 It should not be used in places where temperature exceeds 18°C.
 Blast furnace cement
Properties:
Clinkers of cement with 60vto 65% of
furnace flag.
Less strength in early days. Therefore it
requires longer curing period.
Uses:
Normal constructions of all works.
 Expanding cement
Properties:
Ordinary cement with expanding medium
like sulpho-aluminate and stabilizing
agent.
It expands during setting.
Uses:
 construction of water retaining
structures.
Repairing the damaged concrete surface.
 Low heat cement
Considerable heat is produced during
setting.
It obtained lower percentage of tricalcium
aluminate and higher percentage of
dicalcium silicate.
Less compressive strength.
Initial setting time -1hour
Final setting time – 10 hours.
Uses
Mass concrete works.
 Quick setting cement
Adding small percentage of aluminium
sulphate and fine grinding.
% of gypsum is also greatly reduced.
Initial setting time – 5 minutes.
Becomes hard within – 30 minutes.
Uses:
To lay concrete under running water.
 Sulphate resisting cement
 Tricalcium aluminate is kept below 5 to 6%.
 Resisting power against sulphates.
Uses:
 Canal lining, culverts, syphons.
White cement
 Raw material free from iron oxide.
 White in cement.
Uses:
 Floor finish, plaster work, manufacture of
cement paint and mosaic tiles.
 Portland puzzolana cement(PPC)
% of puzzolana material 10% to 30%.
Resists action of sulphates.
Water tightness.
Higher tensile strength.
Uses:
Mass concrete of lean mix
Marine structures, sewage works, etc. .
 Ordinary portland cement (OPC)
It is manufactured with a single raw material.
It is commonly used.
It is used in all works such as foundations,
piers, abutment, dams, buildings, roads, etc.
Coloured cement:
 Adding mineral pigments plus ordinary
cement.
 Colouring pigment 5 to 10%
Uses
 Floor finish, external finish, cement paints,
etc.
GRADES OF CEMENT
 The commonly used portland cement in
India is branded as 33 grade (IS 269-
1989), 43 grade (IS 8112-1989) and 53
grade (IS 12269-1987) having 28 days
mean compressive strength exceeding
33Mpa, 43 Mpa and 53 Mpa respectively.
33 Grade cement
43 Grade cement
53 Grade cement
 TEST FOR CEMENT
Fineness test
Specific gravity test
Consistency test
Compressive test
Setting times
◦ Initial setting time
◦ Final setting time
Soundness test
Tensile test.
 Fineness test
 Break down any air-set lumps in the cement
sample with fingers.
 Weigh accurately 100gms of the cement and place
it on a standard 90 micron IS. Sieve.
 Continuously sieve the sample for 15 minutes.
 Weigh the residue left after 15 minutes of sieving.
This completes the test.
 Weight of cement taken on I.S: 90 micron sieve =
100 gm.
 Weight of residue after 15 minutes of sieving gm
 Fineness = Wt. of residue / Wt. of sample
 Specific gravity test
 Weigh the specific gravity bottle dry (W1).
 Fill the bottle with distilled water and weigh the bottle
(W2).
 Dry the specific gravity bottle and fill it with kerosene and
weigh (W3).
 Pour some of the kerosene out and introduce a weighed
quantity of cement (say about 60gms) into the bottle. Roll
the bottle gently in the inclined position until no further air
bubble rise to the surface.
 Fill the bottle to the top with kerosene and weight it (W4)

Specific gravity = W2 -W 1
………………………………
W2 –W1 – W3 –W4 ×0.79
Specific gravity bottle
 Consistency test
 This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing
water to form a paste of normal consistency
defined as that percentage water requirement of
the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be
such that the Vicat’s plunger penetrates up to a
point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat’s
mould.
 Importance: The water requirement for various
tests of cement depends on the normal
consistency of the cement, which itself depends
upon the compound composition and fineness
of the cement.
Procedure
 Take 300 g of cement is mixed with 25 per cent
water.
 The paste is filled in the mould of Vicat’s
apparatus (Fig. 5.9) and the surface of the filled
paste is smoothened and levelled.
 A square needle 10 mm x 10 mm attached to the
plunger is then lowered gently over the cement
paste surface and is released quickly.
 The plunger pierces the cement paste. The
reading on the attached scale is recorded.
 When the reading is 5-7 mm from the bottom of
the mould, the amount of water added is
considered to be the correct percentage of water
for normal consistency.
Vicat’s mould
 Compressive test
 Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix
design.
 By this test, the quality and the quantity of concrete can
be cotrolled and the degree of adulteration can be
checked.
 The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area
of about 5000 sq. mm. Large size specimen cubes
cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks may
develop.
 The temperature of water and test room should be 27°±
2°C.
 A mixture of cement and standard sand in the
proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with a trowel for
one minute and then with water until the mixture is of
uniform colour.
 Three specimen cubes are prepared.
 Compressive test
 The cubes are then removed from the moulds
and submerged in clean fresh water and are
taken out just prior to testing in a compression
testing machine.
 Compressive strength is taken to be the average
of the results of the three cubes.
 The load is applied starting from zero at a rate of
35 N/sq mm/minute.
 The compressive strength is calculated from the
crushing load divided by the average area over
which the load is applied. The result is
expressed in N/mm2.
 Initial and final setting time test
 When water is added to cement, the resulting paste
starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose the
consistency simultaneously.
 The term setting implies solidification of the plastic
cement paste.
 Initial and final setting times may be regarded as the
two stiffening states of the cement.
 The beginning of solidification, called the initial set,
marks the point in time when the paste has become
unworkable.
 The time taken to solidify completely marks the final
set, which should not be too long in order to resume
construction activity within a reasonable time after
the placement of concrete.
Vicat’s mould
Procedure
 A neat cement paste is prepared by gauging cement with 0.85 times the
water required to give a paste of standard consistency.
 The stop watch is started at the instant water is added to the cement.
 The mould resting on a nonporous plate is filled completely with
cement paste and the surface of filled paste is levelled smooth with the
top of the mould.
 The test is conducted at room temperature of 27± 2°C. The mould with
the cement paste is placed in the Vicat’s apparatus as shown in Fig. 5.9
and the needle is lowered gently in contact with the test block and is
then quickly released.
 The needle thus penetrates the test block and the reading on the Vicat’s
apparatus graduated scale is recorded.
 The procedure is repeated until the needle fails to pierce the block by
about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
 The stop watch is pushed off and the time is recorded which gives the
initial setting time.
 The cement is considered to be finally set when upon applying the
needle gently to the surface of test block, the needle makes an
impression, but the attachment fails to do so.
 Soundness test
 It is essential that the cement concrete does not
undergo large change in volume after setting.
 This is ensured by limiting the quantities of
free lime and magnesia which slake slowly
causing change in volume of cement (known as
unsound).
 Soundness of cement may be tested by Le-
Chatelier method or by autoclave method.
 Importance: It is a very important test to assure
the quality of cement since an unsound cement
produces cracks, distortion and disintegration,
ultimately leading to failure.
Soundness test
 Le- Chatelier method
 The apparatus is shown in Fig. 5.10. The mould is placed
on a glass sheet and is filled with neat cement paste
formed by gauging 100 g cement with 0.78 times the water
required to give a paste of standard consistency.
 The mould is covered with a glass sheet and a small
weight is placed on the covering glass sheet.
 The mould is then submerged in the water at temperature
of 27°-32°C.
 After 24 hours, the mould is taken out and the distance
separating the indicator points is measured.
 The mould is again submerged in water. The water is now
boiled for 3 hours. The mould is removed from water and
is cooled down.
 The distance between the indicator points is measured
again. The difference between the two measurements
represents the unsoundness of cement.
 Tensile test
 The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette
test method or by split tensile strength test.
Importance:
 The tensile strength of cement affords quicker
indications of defects in the cement than any other
test.
 Also, the test is more conveniently made than the
compressive strength test.
 Moreover, since the flexural strength, is directly
related to the tensile strength this test is ideally fitted
to give information both with regard to tensile and
compressive strengths when the supply for material
testing is small.
 Briquette test method
A mixture of cement and sand is gauged in the
proportion of 1:3 by weight.
 The percentage of water to be used is calculated from
the formula (P/5) + 2.5, where P =percentage of water
required to produce a paste of standard consistency.
 The temperature of the water and the test room should
be 27° ± 2°C. The mix is filled in the moulds of the
shape shown in Fig. 5.11.
 After filling the mould, an additional heap of mix is
placed on the mould and is pushed down with the
standard spatula, until the mixture is level with the top
of the mould.
 This operation is repeated on the other side of the
mould also. The briquettes in the mould are finished
by smoothing the surface with the blade of a trowel.
Tensile test
 FLY ASH
 Fly ash or pulverized fuel ash (PFA) is the residue
from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by
mechanical or electrostatic separators from the flue
gases or power plants.
 It constitutes about 75 per cent of the total ash
produced. The properties and composition of fly ash
vary widely, not only between different plants but from
hour to hour in the same plant.
 Its composition depends on type of fuel burnt and on
the variation of load on the boiler.
 Fly ash obtained from cyclone separators is
comparatively coarse and contains a large proportion
of unburnt fuel, whereas that obtained from
electrostatic precipitators is relatively fine having a
specific surface of about 3500 cm2/g and may be as
high as 5000 cm2/g.
 FLY ASH
 Normally it is rather finer than Portland cement.
 Fly ash consists generally of spherical particles, some
of which may be like glass and hollow and of
irregularly shaped particles of unburnt fuel or carbon.
 It may vary in colour from light grey to dark grey or
even brown.
 Carbon content in fly ash is important consideration
for use with cement; it should be as low as possible.
 The fineness of fly ash should be as high as possible.
 Curing at a temperature of 38°C has been found to
greatly accelerate its contribution to the strength of
concrete.
 Fly ash is supplied in two grades; grade I and grade II.
 There general use is incorporating it in cement mortar
and concrete and in lime pozzolana mixture.
 AGGREGATES
 Aggregates are the major and important
constituents of concrete.
 They form the whole body of concrete as it
occupies 70 to 80% of the volume of concrete.
 Although aggregates were considered as inert
material earlier which have been found recently
to be, chemically active to some extent.
 Cement is the only factor man made component
where aggregate and water are naturally
available materials.
 FINE AGGREGATE
 Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are
defined as fine.
 They may be natural sand—deposited by rivers,
crushed stone sand—obtained by crushing stones
and crushed gravel sand.
 The smallest size of fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06
mm. Depending upon the particle size, fine
aggregates are described as fine, medium and
coarse sands.
 On the basis of particle size distribution, the fine
aggregates are classed into four zones; the
grading zones being progressively finer from
grading zone I to grading zone IV (IS: 383).
 COARSE AGGREGATE
 Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as
coarse.
 They are obtained by natural disintegration or by artificial
crushing of rocks.
 The maximum size of aggregate can be 80 mm. The size
is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of
reinforcement, clear cover, mixing, handling and placing
methods.
 For economy the maximum size should be as large as
possible but not more than one-fourth of the minimum
thickness of the member.
 For reinforced sections the maximum size should be at
least 5 mm less than the clear spacing between the
reinforcement and also at least 5 mm less than the clear
cover.
 Aggregate more than 20 mm size are seldom used for
reinforced cement concrete structural members.
 NATURAL STONE AGGREGATES
 These are obtained by crushing from quarries
of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
 Gravels and sand reduced to their present size
by the natural agencies also fall in this
category.
 The most widely used aggregate are from
igneous origin.
 Aggregates obtained from pits or dredged from
river, creek or sea are most often not clean
enough or well graded to suit the quality
requirement.
 They therefore require sieving and washing
before they can be used in concrete.
 ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES
 Broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic
aggregates are artificial aggregates.
 Broken bricks known as brick bats are suitable for
mass concreting, for example, in foundation bases.
 They are not used for reinforced concrete works.
Blast furnance slag aggregate is obtained from slow
cooling of the slag followed by crushing.
 The dense and strong particles as obtained are used
for making precast concrete products.
 The sp. gr. of these range between 2–2.8 and bulk
density 1120–1300 kg/m3.
 The blast furnace slag aggregate has good fire
resisting properties but are responsible for corrosion
of reinforcement due to sulphure content of slag.
Characteristics of good aggregates
It should be tough.
It should be hard.
It should be strong.
It should be durable.
It should have high specific gravity and low
moisture absorption.
It should posses proper shape so as to
afford proper interlocking of the stones.
It should be angular (or) cubical in shape.
 TESTING OF AGGREGATES
 To determine the suitability of aggregate
for its use in engineering works, the
following tests are performed.
1.Crushing strength test
2.Impact strength test
3.Flakiness Index test
4.Elongation Index test
5.Abrasion resistance test
6.Grading of aggregate test
 Crushing strength test
 Strength of rock is found out by making a test
specimen of cylindrical shape of size 25 mm diameter
and 25 mm height.
 This cylinder is subjected to compressive stress.
 Different rock samples are found to give different
compressive strength varying from a minimum of
about 45 MPa to a maximum of 545 MPa.
 As said earlier, the compressive strength of parent rock
does not exactly indicate the strength of aggregate in
concrete.
 For this reason assessment of strength of the aggregate
is made by using a sample of bulk aggregate in a
standardized manner.
 This test is known as aggregate crushing value test.
Crushing strength test apparatus
 Crushing strength test
 Generally, this test is made on single sized aggregate
passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve.
 The aggregate is placed in a cylindrical mould and a
load of 40 ton is applied through a plunger.
 The material crushed to finer than 2.36 mm is
separated and expressed as a percentage of the
original weight taken in the mould.
 This percentage is referred as aggregate crushing
value.
 The crushing value of aggregate is restricted to 30 per
cent for concrete used for roads and pavements and
45 per cent may be permitted for other structures.
 Impact strength test
 With respect to concrete aggregates, toughness is usually
considered the resistance of the material to failure by impact.
 Several attempts to develop a method of test for aggregates impact
value have been made.
 The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5mm sieve and
retained on 10mm sieve and dried in an oven for 4 hours at a
temperature of 100°C to 110°C
 The aggregates are filled upto about 1/3 full in the cylindrical
measure and tamped 25 times with rounded end of the tamping rod
 The rest of the cylindrical measure is filled by two layers and each
layer being tamped 25 times.
 The overflow of aggregates in cylindrically measure is cut off by
tamping rod using it has a straight edge.
 Then the entire aggregate sample in a measuring cylinder is
weighed nearing to 0.01gm
 The aggregates from the cylindrical measure are carefully
transferred into the cup which is firmly fixed in position on the base
plate of machine. Then it is tamped 25 times.
Impact testing machine
 Impact strength test
 The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38cm above
the upper surface of aggregate in the cup and allowed to
fall freely on the aggregates.
 The test sample is subjected to a total of 15 such blows
each being delivered at an interval of not less than one
second.
 The crushed aggregate is than removed from the cup and
the whole of it is sieved on 2.36mm sieve until no
significant amount passes.
 The fraction passing the sieve is weighed accurate to
0.1gm. Repeat the above steps with other fresh sample.
 Let the original weight of the oven dry sample be W1gm
and the weight of fraction passing 2.36mm IS sieve be
W2gm.
 Then aggregate impact value is expressed as the % of fines
formed in terms of the total weight of the sample
 Flakiness Index test
 The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by
weight of particles in it whose least dimension (thickness)
is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.
 The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 This test is conducted by using a metal thickness gauge.
 A sufficient quantity of aggregate is taken such that a
minimum number of 200 pieces of any fraction can be
tested.
 Each fraction is gauged in turn for thickness on the metal
gauge.
 The total amount passing in the gauage is weighed to an
accuracy of 0.1 per cent of the weight of the samples taken.
 The flakiness index is taken as the total weight of the
material passing the various thickness gauges expressed as
a percentage of the total weight of the sample taken.
Flakiness Index test
Flakiness Index test
Flakiness Index test
 Elongation Index test
 The elongation index on an aggregate is the
percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is greater than
1.8 times their mean dimension.
 The elongation index is not applicable to
sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 This test is conducted by using metal length
guage.
 A sufficient quantity of aggregate is taken to
provide a minimum number of 200 pieces of
any fraction to be tested.
 Elongation Index test
 Each fraction shall be gauged individually for length
on the metal guage.
 The guage length used shall be that specified in
column of 4 of Table 3.18 for the appropriate size of
material.
 The total amount retained by the guage length shall be
weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 per cent of the
weight of the test samples taken.
 The elongation index is the total weight of the
material retained on the various length gauges
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the
sample gauged.
 The presence of elongated particles in excess of 10 to
15 per cent is generally considered undesirable, but
no recoganised limits are laid down.
LENGTH GUAGE.
 Abrasion resistance test
 Indian Standard 2386 (Part IV) of 1963 covers
two methods for finding out the abrasion value
of coarse aggregates: namely, by the use of
Deval abrasion testing machine and by the use
of Los Angeles abrasion testing machine.
 Test sample and abrasive charge are placed in the
Los Angeles Abrasion testing machine and the
machine is rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min.
 For gradings A, B, C and D, the machine is
rotated for 500 revolutions.
 For gradings E, F and G, it is rotated 1000
revolutions.
 Abrasion resistance test
 At the completion of the above number of revolution,
the material is discharged from the machine and a
preliminary separation of the sample made on a sieve
coarser than 1.7 mm IS Sieve.
 Finer portion is then sieved on a 1.7 mm IS Sieve.
The material coarser than 1.7 mm IS Sieved is
washed, dried in an oven at 105° to 110°C to a
substantially constant weight and accurately weighed
to the nearest gram.
 The difference between the original weight and the
final weight of the test sample is expressed as a
percentage of the original weight of the test sample.
 This value is reported as the percentage of wear. The
percentage of wear should not be more than 16 per
cent for concrete aggregates.
Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine.
 Grading of aggregate test
 Aggregate comprises about 55 per cent of the
volume of mortar and about 85 per cent volume
of mass concrete.
 Mortar contains aggregate of size of 4.75 mm
and concrete contains aggregate upto a
maximum size of 150 mm.
 Thus it is not surprising that the way particles of
aggregate fit together in the mix, as influenced
by the gradation, shape, and surface texture, has
an important effect on the workability and
finishing characteristic of fresh concrete,
consequently on the properties of hardened
concrete.
 Grading of aggregate test
 One of the most important factors for
producing workable concrete is good
gradation of aggregates.
 Good grading implies that a sample of
aggregates contains all standard fractions of
aggregate in required proportion such that
the sample contains minimum voids.
 A sample of the well graded aggregate
containing minimum voids will require
minimum paste to fill up the voids in the
aggregates.
 Grading of aggregate test
 This is the name given to the operation of dividing a
sample of aggregate into various fractions each
consisting of particles of the same size.
 The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the
particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate,
which we call gradation.
 The aggregates used for making concrete are normally
of the maximum size 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,
4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron and 150
micron.
 The aggregate fraction from 80 mm to 4.75 mm are
termed as coarse aggregate and those fraction from
4.75 mm to 150 micron are termed as fine aggregate.
 The size 4.75 mm is a common fraction appearing
both in coarse aggregate and fine aggregate (C.A. and
F.A.).
 Grading of aggregate test
Sieving can be done either manually or
mechanically.
In the manual operation the sieve is shaken
giving movements in all possible direction to
give chance to all particles for passing
through the sieve.
 Operation should be continued till such time
that almost no particle is passing through.
Mechanical devices are actually designed to
give motion in all possible direction, and as
such, it is more systematic and efficient than
hand-sieving.
Sieve shakers
Sieve sets
Thank
you