3.

1 Discontinuons Controller
 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
• Process Equation
• Process Load
• Process Lag
• Self-Regulation
Process Equation

TL = F(QA, QB, QS, TA, TS, T0)

QA, QB = flow rates in pipes A and B

QS = steam flow rate
TA = ambient temperature
T0 = inlet fluid temperature

TS = steam temperature

The steam flow rate QS is the controlling

parameter
 Process Load

• The term process load refers to this set of all

parameters.
• When all parameters have their nominal
values, then nominal load on the system.
• Suppose one of the parameters changes from
nominal, causing a corresponding shift in the
controlled variable.
• This means a process load change has
occurred.
 Process Lag

• At some point in time, a process-load change

or transient causes a change in the controlled
variable.
• The process-control loop responds to ensure
that, some finite time later, the variable
returns to the setpoint value.
• Part of this time is consumed by the process
itself and is called the process lag.
 CONTROLLER PRINCIPLES

The deviation or error of the controlled variable from the setpoint is given by

e=r-b e = error
b = measured indication of variable
r = setpoint of variable (reference)
 CONTROLLER PRINCIPLES
• The measured value of a variable can be
expressed as percent of span over a range of
measurement by the equation
𝑐 −𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛
cp= *100
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where cmin = minimum of measured value

cmax = maximum of measured value
c = actual measured value
cp = measured value as percent of
measurement range
 CONTROLLER PRINCIPLES
• express error as percent of span
𝑟−𝑏
ep = *100
𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where ep = error expressed as percent of span
 Control Parameter Range
• The controller output as a percent of full scale
when the output varies between specified
limits is given by
𝑢−𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛
P= *100
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛
p = controller output as percent of full scale
u = value of the output
umax = maximum value of controlling parameter
umin = minimum value of controlling parameter
 CONTROLLER PRINCIPLES
• Control Lag: refers to the time for the process-
control loop to make necessary adjustments
to the final control element.
• Dead Time: . It is the elapsed time between
the instant a deviation (error) occurs and
when the corrective action first occurs.
• Cycling: It means the variable is cycling above
and below the setpoint value.
 DISCONTINUOUS CONTROLLER
MODES
• Two-Position Mode
• Multiposition Mode
• Floating-Control Mode
 Two-Position Mode

• The most elementary controller mode is the

ON/OFF, or two-position, mode.
Two-Position Mode
 Two-Position Mode

• Neutral Zone

Figure : Two-position controller action with

neutral zone.
Drawback of ON/OFF Controller
 Multiposition Mode
• This mode is represented by
p = pi ep > 𝑒𝑖 i = 1, 2, p , n
As the error exceeds certain set limits , the
controller output is adjusted to preset values,Pi
 Multiposition Mode
• The most common example is the three-
position controller where
Relationship between error and three-position controller action, including the effects of
lag.
 Floating-Control Mode
• In floating control, the specific output of the
controller is not uniquely determined by the
error. If the error is zero, the output does not
change but remains (floats) at whatever
setting it was when the error went to zero.
When the error moves off zero, the controller
output again begins to change.
 Floating-Control Mode
• Single Speed : In the single-speed floating-
control mode, the output of the control
element changes at a fixed rate when the
error exceeds the neutral zone.
• An equation for this action is
 Floating-Control Mode
• Equation is integrated for the actual controller
output, we get
 Floating-Control Mode

Single-speed floating controller as shown in: (a) single-speed controller action as the
output rate of change to input error,
 Floating-Control Mode

(b) an example of error and controller response.

 CONTINUOUS CONTROLLER MODES
• In these modes, the output of the controller
changes smoothly in response to the error or
rate of change of error.
– Proportional Control Mode
– Integral-Control Mode
– Derivative-Control Mode
– COMPOSITE CONTROL MODES
 Proportional Control Mode
• Linear relationship exists between the
controller output and the error.
• The range of error to cover the 0% to 100%
controller output is called the proportional
band.
• This mode can be expressed by

Where KP = proportional gain between error

and controller output (% per %)
p0 = controller output with no error (%)
 Proportional Control Mode
• proportional band is defined by the equation

• The characteristics of the proportional mode and

Equation
– If the error is zero, the output is a constant equal to P0
– 2.If there is error ,for every 1% of error, a correction of Kp
percent is added to or subtracted from P0, depending on
the sign of the error.
– There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB within
which the output is not saturated at 0% or 100%
 Proportional Control Mode

Figure : The proportional band of a proportional controller depends on the inverse of the gain.
 Proportional Control Mode

FIGURE An offset error must occur if a proportional controller requires a new zero-
error output following a load change
Proportional Control Mode
 Integral-Control Mode
• The integral mode eliminates offset error by
allowing the controller to adapt to changing
external conditions by changing the zero-error
output.
• This mode is represented by an integral
equation

where p(0) is the controller output when the integral action starts
The gain KI expresses how much controller output in percent is
needed for every percent-time accumulation of error.
 Integral-Control Mode
• A relation for the rate at which the controller
output changes

FIGURE
Integral mode controller action: (a) The rate of output change depends on error,
 Integral-Control Mode

(b) An illustration of integral mode output and error.

 Integral-Control Mode
• The characteristics of the integral mode and
Equation
1. If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a
value equal to what it was when the error went
to zero.
2. If the error is not zero, the output will begin
to increase or decrease at a rate of KI
percent/second for every 1% of error.
 Derivative-Control Mode
• Derivation controller action responds to the
rate at which the error is changing—that is,
the derivative of the error.
• The equation for this mode is given by the
expression

where the gain, represents how much percent to change the controller output for every
percent-per-second rate of change of error

Derivative action is not used alone because it provides no output when the error is
constant.
 Derivative-Control Mode
• Derivative controller action is also called rate
action and anticipatory control.

FIGURE The error can be zero but the rate of change very large
 Derivative-Control Mode

FIGURE Derivative mode controller action changes depending on the rate of error
 Derivative-Control Mode
The characteristics of the derivative mode and
Equation
1. If the error is zero, the mode provides no output.
2. If the error is constant in time, the mode
provides no output.
3. If the error is changing in time, the mode
contributes an output of percent for every 1%-per-
second rate of change of error.
4. For direct action, a positive rate of change of
error produces a positive derivative mode output.
 COMPOSITE CONTROL MODES
• Proportional-Integral Control (PI)
This is a control mode that results from a
combination of the proportional mode and the
integral mode. The analytic expression for this
control process is given by

PI(0) = integral term value at t = 0 (initial value)

 Proportional-Integral Control (PI)

• Advantage
This composite control mode is that the one-to-
one correspondence of the proportional mode is
available and the integral mode eliminates the
inherent offset.
 Proportional-Integral Control (PI)

The characteristics of the PI mode and Equation

1. When the error is zero, the controller output is
fixed at the value that the integral term had
when the error went to zero. This output is
given by in Equation simply
2. If the error is not zero, the proportional term
contributes a correction, and the integral term
begins to increase or decrease the accumulated
value [initially, PI(0)], depending on the sign of the
error and the direct or reverse action.
 Proportional-Integral Control (PI)

FIGURE 19
Overshoot and cycling often result when PI mode control is used in start-up of batch
processes. The dashed lines show the proportional band.
Proportional-Derivative Control Mode
(PD)
• The analytic expression for this mode

• This system cannot eliminate the offset of pr

• It handle fast process load changes as long as
the load change offset error is acceptable.
 Proportional-Derivative Control Mode
(PD)

FIGURE 21
Proportional-derivative (PD) action showing the offset error from the proportional mode.
This example is for reverse action
 Three-Mode Controller (PID)
• One of the most powerful but complex
controller mode operations combines the
proportional, integral, and derivative modes.
• The analytic expression is
 Three-Mode Controller (PID)

The three-mode controller action exhibits proportional, integral, and derivative action.