 Today: point-to-point acoustic links

 Future: autonomous networks for ocean

observation

•Types of nodes:
–fixed, slowly moving, mobile
–sensors, relays, gateways
•Types of signals, system requirements:
–low/high rate (~100 bps-100kbps)
–real-time/non real-time
–high/moderate reliability
•Configurations:
–stand alone
–integrated (e.g., cabled observatories)
 Channel characteristics
 Signal processing: bandwidth-efficient
underwater acoustic communications
 Example: application to oil field
monitoring
 Future research
Physical constraints of acoustic
propagation:
 limited, range-dependent bandwidth
 time-varying multipath
 low speed of sound (1500 m/s)

tt(1±v/c)
ff(1±v/c)

Worst of both radio worlds

(land mobile / satellite)

System constraints:
• transducer bandwidth
• battery power
• half-duplex
Underwater image transmission: sequence of images (JPEG) at < 1 frame/sec
MPEG-4 : 64 kbps (video conferencing)
Can we achieve 100 kbps over an acoustic channel?
Compression to High-level
reduce bit rate modulation to
needed for video ? increase the bit
representation rate supported by
acoustic channel
 Example: Application to oil-field monitoring
Example:
Q: Is real-time supervisory control of the AUV possible?
AUV to base range ~ 60 m.
A:Not over long distances, where the propagation delay
is many seconds, but possibly over short distances. acoustic link delay = 40 ms
cabled link delay = negligible
Bonus: The available acoustic bandwidth is much greater
over short distances. acoustic band ~ several 100 kHz
bit rate > 100 kbs : well within
current video compression technology

short distance platform alternative: optical communciation

high bandwidth sea level high rate (Mbps)
acoustic link low distance ~ 10 m
AUV

base power, communications, oil

station base
station

base
station

Fundamental questions:
Statistical channel modeling
Network capacity
Research areas:
Data compression
Signal processing for communications:
adaptive modulation / coding
channel estimation / prediction
multiple in/out channels (tx/rx arrays)
multi-user communications
communications in hostile environment
Communication networks:
network layout / resource allocation and reuse
network architecture / cross layer optimization
network protocols: all layers
Underwater optical communications:
blue-green region (450-550 nm)
+much higher bandwidth (~Mbps)
+negligible delay
-short distance (<100 m)
Experimental networks:
System specification:
typical vs. application-specific (traffic patterns, performance requirements)
optimization criteria (delay, throughput, reliability, energy efficiency)
Concept demonstration:
simulation
in-water
prototypes
System integration:
Cabled observatories
Integration of wireless communications:
cabled backbone + mobile nodes = extended reach
Wireless extension: acoustical and optical
complementary
to acoustics
Attentuation (path loss): A(d,f)=dka(f)d
10logA(d,f)=10klog d + d 10 log a(f)
Absorption coefficient increases rapidly with
frequency: fundamental bandwidth limitation.
spreading absorption
loss loss
Only very low frequencies propagate
over long distances
2 spherical spreading
k= 1.5 practical spreading
1 cylindrical spreading

Thorp’s formula for absorption coefficient (empirical):

10 log a(f) = 0.11 f2/(1+f2)+44 f2/(4100+f2)+0.000275 f2+0.003 dB/km, for f [kHz]

absorption fundamental limitation of maximal frequency

 Noise
Site-specific:
• man-made
• biological (e.g., shrimp)
• ice cracking, rain
• seismic events
Ambient (open sea): p.s.d. [dB re μPa], f[kHz]
• turbulence: 17 -30 log f
• shipping: 40+20(s-0.5)+26log f-60log(f+0.03)
• surface: 50+7.5w0.5+20log f-40 log (f+0.4)
• thermal: -15+20 log f

Majority of ambient noise sources:

• continuous p.s.d.
• Gaussian statistics

Approximation: N(f)=Kf-b 
noise p.s.d. decays at b=18 dB/dec
 Signal to noise ratio (SNR)

PR(d,f)~PT/A(d,f)
SNR(d,f) ~ - 10∙klog d - d∙10 log a(f) - b∙10log f
PN(f)~N(f)Δf

• There exists an optimal center frequency

for a given distance.
• Bandwidth is limited: lower end by
noise, upper end by absorption.
• Additional limitation:
transducer bandwidth.

Bandwidth-efficient modulation needed for high-rate communications.

Many short hops offer larger bandwidth than one long hop (as well as lower energy consumption).
 Multipath propagation
• Multipath structure depends on the channel geometry, signal frequency, sound speed profile.
• Sound pressure field at any location, time, is given by the solution to the wave equation.
• Approximations to this solution represent models of sound propagation (deterministic).
• Models are used to obtain a more accurate prediction of the signal strength.

• Ray model provides insight into the mechanisms of multipath formation:

deep water—ray bending
shallow water—reflections from surface, bottom, objects.
c land sea

surface layer (mixing) continental shelf (~100 m)

const. temperature (except under ice)
main thermocline continental slice
temperature decreases rapidly

deep ocean
constant temperature (4 deg. C) continental rise
pressure increases
abyssal
plain
Sound speed increases with temperature, pressure, salinity.
depth
surf shallow deep
 Mechanisms of multipath formation
Deep water: a ray, launched at some angle, bends towards Shallow water: reflections at surface have little loss;
the region of lower sound speed (Snell’s law). reflection loss at bottom depends on the type
Continuous application of Snell’s law  ray diagram (trace). (sand,rock, etc.), angle of incidence, frequency.

c distance

tx tx rx

Multipath gets attenuated because of

repeated reflection loss, increased path length.
depth

Deep sound channeling:

-rays bend repeatedly towards the depth at which the Length of each path can be calculated
sound speed is minimal from geometry:
-sound can travel over long distances in this manner lp: pth path length
(no reflection loss). τp= lp /c: pth path delay
Ap=A(lp,f): pth path attenuation
Gp= Γp/Ap1/2: path gain
Γp: p path reflection coefficient
th
Propagation speed
Nominal: c=1500 m/s (compare to 3∙108 m/s!)

Two types of problems:

-motion-induced Doppler distortion (v~ few m/s for an AUV)
-long propagation delay / high latency

tt(1±v/c)
ff(1±v/c)