EMT 235 DIGITAL PRINCIPLES II

Chapter 1:
Digital Design Concepts
Part 1

Lecturer: Dr Sanna Taking

Email: sanna@unimap.edu.my
Office Room: 7-00-C (Block 7), Pauh Putra

Week 1
Digital and Analog Signals

Signals carry information and are defined as any physical

quantity that varies with time, space, or any other
independent variable – e.g. Sine wave

A system can be defined as a physical device that performs

an operation on a signal – e.g. an amplifier

Signals can be categorized in various ways; for

example discrete and continuous time domains.
Analog Quantities

Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary

continuously. Analog systems can generally handle higher
power than digital systems.
Temperature
(°F)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A .M . P.M .

Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more

efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point.
Advantages of digital signals

Noise Margin (resistance to noise/robustness) :

Digital circuits are less affected by noise

Error Correction and Detection :

Digital signals can be regenerated to achieve lossless data
transmission, within certain limits. Analog signal
transmission and processing, by contrast, always
introduces noise.
Advantages of digital signals

Easily Programmable :
Digital systems interface well with computers and are
easy to control with software.

Cheap Electronic Circuits :

More digital circuitry can be fabricated per square
millimeter of integrated-circuit material. Information
storage can be much easier in digital systems than in
analog ones.
Disadvantages

The world in which we live is analog, and signals from

this world such as light, temperature, sound, electrical
conductivity, electric and magnetic fields, and phenomena
such as the flow of time, are for most practical purposes
continuous and thus analog quantities rather than discrete
digital ones
Analog and Digital Systems

Many systems use a mix of analog and digital electronics to

take advantage of each technology. A typical CD player
accepts digital data from the CD drive and converts it to an
analog signal for amplification.
CD drive

10110011101 Digital-to-analog Linear amplifier

Digital data converter Analog
reproduction
of music audio Speaker
signal
Sound
waves
Binary Digits and Logic Levels

Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which

are represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH
and LOW. The voltages represent numbers in the binary
system.
VH(max)
In binary, a single number is HIGH
called a bit (for binary digit). A VH(min)

bit can have the value of either Invalid

VL(max)
a 0 or a 1, depending on if the
voltage is HIGH or LOW. LOW
VL(min)
 Digital Waveforms

Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH

levels. A positive going pulse is one that goes from a
normally LOW logic level to a HIGH level and then back
again. Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses.

HIGH HIGH
Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or
leading edge trailing edge leading edge trailing edge

LOW LOW
t0 t1 t0 t1

(a) Positive–going pulse (b) Negative–going pulse

Positive-edge Trigger vs Negative-edge Trigger

 Pulse Definitions

Actual pulses are not ideal but are described by the rise time,
fall time, amplitude, and other characteristics.
Overshoot
Ringing
Droop
90%
Amplitude tW
50%
Pulse width

10%
Ringing

Base line Undershoot

tr tf
Rise time Fall time
 Delay Definitions

12
 Propagation Delay
Definition 1

 (tPHL+tPLH)/2

Definition 2

 Max (tPHL, tPLH)

Periodic Pulse Waveforms

Periodic pulse waveforms are composed of pulses that repeats

in a fixed interval called the period. The frequency is the rate
it repeats and is measured in hertz.

1 1

The clock is a basicf timing T that is an example of a
signal
T f
periodic wave.

What is the period of a repetitive wave if f = 3.2 GHz?

1 1
T   313 ps
f 3.2 GHz
 Pulse Definitions

In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse waveforms

are described by the amplitude (A), pulse width (tW) and duty
cycle. Duty cycle is the ratio of tW to T.

Volts

Pulse
width
Amplitude (A) (tW)

Time
Period, T
Timing Diagrams

A timing diagram is used to show the relationship between

two or more digital waveforms,
Clock

A diagram like this can be observed

directly on a logic analyzer.
Serial and Parallel Data

Data can be transmitted by either serial transfer or parallel

transfer.
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
t0 t1 t2 t3 t 4 t 5 t6 t7
Computer Modem

1
Computer Printer
0

0
t0 t1
Basic Logic Functions

True only if all input conditions

are true.

True only if one or more input

conditions are true.

Indicates the opposite condition.

Basic System Functions

And, or, and not elements can be combined to form

various logic functions. A few examples are:

The comparison function A

Comparator
A> B

Two
binary A= B Outputs
numbers
B
A< B

Basic arithmetic functions Adder

A
Two Σ Sum
binary
numbers Carry out
Cout
B
Carry in Cin
Basic System Functions
HIGH
9 Encoder
8
7
6 Binary code
5 for 9 used for
4 storage and/or
The encoding function 7 8 9
3
2
1
computation

4 5 6 0
1 2 3
0 . +/–
Calculator keypad

The decoding function

Decoder

Binary input

7-segment display
Basic System Functions

The data selection function

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
A D
Data from Data from Data from Data from
A to D B to E C to F A to D
∆t1 ∆t1
∆ t1 ∆ t2 ∆ t3 ∆t1
B E
∆t2 ∆t2
∆t3 ∆t3
C F

Switching Switching
sequence sequence
control input control input
Basic System Functions

The counting function Counters..

Counter Parallel
output lines Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
code code code code code
1 2 3 4 5 for 1 for 2 for 3 for 4 for 5
Input pulses Sequence of binary codes that represent
the number of input pulses counted.

…and other functions such as code conversion

and storage.
Basic System Functions

One type of storage function is the shift register,

that moves and stores data each time it is clocked.

Serial bits
on input line
Initially, the register contains onlyinvalid
0101 0 0 0 0 data or all zeros as shown here.

First bit (1) is shifted serially into the

010 1 0 0 0 register.

Second bit (0) is shifted serially into

01 0 1 0 0 register and first bit is shifted right.

Third bit (1) is shifted into register and

0 1 0 1 0 the first and second bits are shifted right.

Fourth bit (0) is shifted into register and

0 1 0 1 the first, second, and third bits are shifted
right. The register now stores all four bits
and is full.
 Clock

A basic timing signal in a digital system; a periodic

waveform used to synchronize actions.
 QUIZ

1. Compared to analog systems, digital systems

a. are less prone to noise
b. can represent an infinite number of values
c. can handle much higher power
d. all of the above
 QUIZ

2. The number of values that can be assigned

to a bit are
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. ten
 QUIZ

3. The time measurement between the 50%

point on the leading edge of a pulse to the 50%
point on the trailing edge of the pulse is called
the
a. rise time
b. fall time
c. period
d. pulse width
 QUIZ

4. The time measurement between the 90%

point on the trailing edge of a pulse to the 10%
point on the trailing edge of the pulse is called
the
a. rise time
b. fall time
c. period
d. pulse width
 QUIZ

5. The reciprocal of the frequency of a clock

signal is the
a. rise time
b. fall time
c. period
d. pulse width
 QUIZ

6. If the period of a clock signal is 500 ps, the

frequency is
a. 20 MHz
b. 200 MHz
c. 2 GHz
d. 20 GHz
 QUIZ

7. AND, OR, and NOT gates can be used to

form
a. storage devices
b. comparators
c. data selectors
d. all of the above
 QUIZ

8. A shift register is an example of a

a. storage device
b. comparator
c. data selector
d. counter
 QUIZ

9. A device that is used to switch one of several

input lines to a single output line is called a
a. comparator
b. decoder
c. counter
d. multiplexer
 QUIZ

10. For most digital work, an oscilloscope should be

coupled to the signal using
a. ac coupling
b. dc coupling
c. GND coupling
d. none of the above
Figure 1.1. A silicon wafer (courtesy of Altera Corp.).
Integrated Circuits
Cutaway view of DIP (Dual-In-line Pins) chip:

• TTL chips (7400

Plastic series)
Chip case
• CMOS chips
(4000 series)

SN 74 ALS 00 N

SN : Manufacturer (Texas Instruments)

Pins 74: 74-series

ALS: Logic Family (Advanced Low Power)
00: Logic Function (Quad 2-input NAND)
N: Package (Plastic DIP)
Integrated Circuits

DIP chips and surface mount chips

Pin 1

Dual in-line package Small outline IC (SOIC)

Examples of through-hole and surface –mounted devices.

Integrated Circuits

Other surface mount packages:

End view End view End view

SOIC PLCC LCC

A typical ball-grid array (BGA) package configuration.
 Digital Hardware

 Standard Chips

 Programmable Logic Devices

 Custom Designed Chips

Figure 1.6. A printed circuit board.
A digital hardware system
 Fixed-function logic
(Standard Chips)

A category of digital integrated circuits having

functions that cannot be altered.
 Figure 3–61 Pin configuration diagrams for some common fixed-function IC gate configurations.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Thomas L. Floyd
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Digital Fundamentals, 9e All rights reserved.
 Programmable logic

A category of digital integrated circuits capable of

being programmed to perform specified functions.
Programmable Logic

Programmable logic devices (PLDs) are an alternative to

fixed function devices. The logic can be programmed for a
specific purpose. In general, they cost less and use less
board space that fixed function devices.
A PAL device is a form of PLD that uses a
combination of a programmable AND array and a
fixed OR array:

Fixed OR
Programmable array and
AND array output logic
Group of 8 logic cells Memory block

Interconnection
wires

Figure 1.2. A field-programmable gate array chip

(courtesy of Altera Corp.).
Design concept

Initial design

Simulation Redesign

No
Design correct?

Yes

Successful design

The basic design loop

Programmable logic.

Programmable Logic
Devices
Field Programmable
Gate Arrays

Simple PLDs Complex PLDs

PROM, Programmable
ROMs
Block diagrams of simple programmable logic devices
(SPLDs).

Available for small-scale application. Can replace up to ten fixed-

function ICs and their interconnections, depending on the type of
functions and the specific SPLD
2 categories : PAL (i.e. device that can be programmed one time) or
GAL (i.e. device that is basically a PAL that can be reprogrammed
many times)
 General block
diagram of a CPLD.
Used to implement
any of the logic
functions.

Basic CPLD with 4 logic array blocks (LABs) & a programmable

interconnection array (PIA). Depending on the specific CPLD, there
can be from 2 to 64 LABs. Each LAB is roughly equivalent to 1
SPLD
Basic structure of an FPGA.
Basic configuration for programming a PLD or FPGA.
Programmable Logic Softwares

• Altera’s QuartusII
• Xilinx ISE
• Lattice
Basic PLD design flow Design Entry

• Schematic
• Source Codes (HDL,
hardware description
language)

Functional Simulation
- verify that the circuit
functions as expected

Synthesis
-Converts schematic or
HDL codes into logic
gates
circuit

Timing Simulation
-Considers propagation
delay of the circuit

Program the PLD chip

 Custom Designed Chips
• The circuit is designed to be optimized,
therefore better performance.
– Less chip area, higher speed, lower power,
etc.
• Consists of bigger circuits, i.e. can replace
multiple standard chips.
• Examples: microprocessor or any chips
for a special purpose.