UNIT XII – ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY II

Reproductive, Nervous, Digestive, Muscular Systems

Big Campbell – Ch. 41, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50
Baby Campbell – Ch 21, 27, 28, 30
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
What are the
advantages of
sexual
reproduction?
I. GAMETE PRODUCTION
 II. REPRODUCTION – MALE HUMAN ANATOMY
• Testes
 Contained in scrotum
 Importance of temperature
 Seminiferous tubules – sperm formation
 Leydig Cells – produce testosterone & other
hormones
 Sertoli Cells
• Epididymis
 coiled tubules that sperm pass through from
testis
• Vas deferens
 Muscular tube that propels sperm during
ejaculation
• Ejaculatory Duct
 Combines sperm from both testes; leads to
urethra
• Glands
 Seminal vesicles – Add fluid to protect
nourish sperm, including fructose, mucus,
enzymes; produces semen
 Prostate gland - Secretes anticoagulant,
nutrients into semen
 Bulbourethral glands – Secretes acid
neutralizer before ejaculation
• Penis/Urethra
 Ejaculation - Release of semen
 Blockage of urine flow controlled by
sphincters
II. REPRODUCTION – MALE, cont
Human Sperm
 III. REPRODUCTION – FEMALE HUMAN ANATOMY
• Ovaries
 Follicle – Egg capsule; nourishes
and protects egg
 Egg released during ovulation
 Corpus luteum – Secretes estrogen
and progesterone to maintain uterine
lining; formed from follicle after egg
is released
• Oviduct
 Also known as fallopian tube
 Egg moved along through action of
cilia
• Uterus
 Thick, muscular organ also known
as womb
 Endometrium – inner lining
 Cervix – opens into vagina
 IV. REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
• Estrous Cycle
 Seen in animals
 Uterine lining is reabsorbed by the uterus if pregnancy does not occur; no
bleeding
 Causes more pronounced behavioral changes
 Animals typically only copulate during ovulation; known as estrus
• Menstrual Cycle
 Seen in humans, other primates
 Oogenesis occurs during the ovarian cycle
 Ovarian cycle is synchronized with menstrual cycle through the action of
hormones
 Divided into phases
 Follicular phase – growth of follicle
 Ovulation – release of egg
 Luteal phase – degeneration of corpus luteum
 V. MENSTRUAL REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

Follicular Phase
• Small amounts of Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone are
secreted by the pituitary
• The follicle is stimulated to grow, leading to secretion of estrogen (estradiol)
• Initially, low levels of estrogen inhibit secretion of FSH, LH (negative feedback)
 V. MENSTRUAL REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE, cont

Ovulation
• As estrogen concentration continues to increase in growing follicle, at a
critical concentration, estrogen concentration switches to positive feedback
mechanism.
• FSH and LH production increase, especially LH
• Causes release of follicle
 V. MENSTRUAL REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE, cont

Luteal Phase
• LH stimulates remaining follicular tissue to transform into corpus luteum
• Due to effects of LH, corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogen
• Increasing concentrations of progesterone, estrogen exert negative feedback on
pituitary, decreasing release of FSH, LH
• As levels continue to decrease, corpus luteum disintegrates
• Results in sharp decrease in estrogen, progesterone levels
• At a certain point, levels drop beneath concentration required for negative feedback to
pituitary → pituitary then begins secreting FSH, LH → cycle begins again
 VI. FERTILIZATION
• Fertilization:
 Sperm reaches egg
 Head of sperm contains a vesicle known as the acrosome; contains enzymes that help sperm penetrate
egg
 Acrosomal reaction – hydrolytic enzymes act on egg jelly coat
 Surface proteins on sperm bind with receptor molecules on egg
 Sperm cell membrane fuses with egg cell membrane
 Cell membrane of egg depolarizes, becomes impenetrable to sperm to prevent multiple fertilization
(polyspermy)
 Triggers increase in metabolic activity in fertilized egg (including completion of meiosis II)
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
I. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
 I. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Cleavage
• Cleavage produces a ball of
cells known as a blastula
 Cells known as blastomeres
 Cavity formed known as blastocoel
• Nutrients stored in the egg
known as yolk
• Two sides of the blastula
 Vegetal pole – Side with high yolk
concentration; larger cells due to
yolk; divide more slowly
 Animal pole – Side with low yolk
concentration; smaller cells; divide
at a faster rate
 I. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT - Amniotes
• Forms within a shell or
uterus
• Extraembryonic
membranes
 Yolk sac – Contains
blood vessels that
transport nutrients from
yolk to embryo
 Amnion – Fluid-filled
sac; protection
 Chorion – Formation of
placenta
 Allantois – Disposal sac
for nitrogenous wastes;
incorporated into
umbilical cord in
mammals
 II. GASTRULATION
• Formation of blastopore
• Cells migrate to form three embryonic tissue layers
 Ectoderm – outer layer; develops into epidermis, nervous system
 Mesoderm – middle layer; develops into skeletal, muscular, excretory
systems, heart
 Endoderm – inner layer; forms digestive tract & associated organs,
respiratory organs, etc
• Simple digestive cavity formed from endoderm known as archenteron
• Gastrula formed
 III. ORGANOGENESIS

Organogenesis
I. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Human Nervous System
 II. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Glia
o Support cells
o Mostly nonconducting cells that provide support, insulation, protection
 Astrocyctes
 Schwann cells - PNS
 Oligodendrocytes - CNS
• Neuron
o Basic unit of function
o Three types
Sensory Neurons
 Convey signals from sensory receptors to CNS
Interneurons
 Integrate, interpret data; relay signals to other neurons
Motor Neurons
 Convey signals from CNS to effector cells (glands or muscles)
 II. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, cont
A Closer Look at a Neuron
 Dendrite
 Cell Body
 Axon
o Myelin Sheath
o Nodes of Ranvier
 Axon (Synaptic) Terminal
 Synapse
II. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, cont
 III. NEURAL SIGNALING
• Membrane potential (voltage differences across the plasma membrane)
• Selective permeability of plasma membrane creates
intracellular/extracellular ion concentration gradient
o High concentration of Na + outside
• Net negative charge of about -70mV
 III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
• Neurons, muscle cells → excitable cells; cells that can change membrane potentials
• Gated Ion Channels → open/close response to stimuli → photoreceptors; vibrations in air
(sound receptors); chemical (neurotransmitters) & voltage (membrane potential changes)
• Hyperpolarization → opening of K+ channels; results in outflow of K+; increase in electrical
gradient
• Depolarization → opening of Na+ channels; results in inflow of Na+
 III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
• Threshold – Stimulus strong enough
to increase voltage to ~ -50mV;
triggers an action potential
• Caused by movement of ions through
Na+, K+ voltage-gated channels
• Sequence of events:
 Resting State – Channels closed
 Depolarization – Na+ channels
open; inside of cell becomes +
 Repolariztion - Na+ channels
close; K+ channels open slowly
→ K+ ions leave → cell returns
to negative
 Hyperpolarization – Created by
K+ gates; close very slowly → K+
ions continue flowing out of cell
→ brief period where cell is more
negative than resting state.
Known as refractory period –
neuron is insensitive to
depolarization until resting
potential is restored
 III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
• Movement of the action potential is self-propagating
• Regeneration of “new” action potentials only after refractory period
• Forward direction only
• Speed of action potential related to
 Axon diameter
 Nodes of Ranvier; known as saltatory conduction
 III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
Transmission of Impulse Across a
Synapse
• Synaptic cleft – small gap between
sending neuron and receiving cell
• Synaptic vesicles contain
neurotransmitter molecules
• Action potential causes synaptic
terminal to depolarize → Ca2+
channels open → Ca2+ flows in →
causes vesicles to fuse with axon
terminal membrane
• Neurotransmitters “spit out”; diffuse
across synapse
 Excitatory Postsynaptic
Potentials (EPSPs)
 Inhibitory Postsynaptic
Potentials (IPSPs)
• Examples of neurotransmitters
include acetylcholine, dopamine,
epinephrine, norepinephrine,
serotonin
III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
III. NEURAL SIGNALING, cont
A Review
IV. VERTEBRATE PNS
 IV. VERTEBRATE PNS, cont

• Nerves
 Bundles of
sensory &
motor
neurons
 12 pairs of
cranial
nerves
 31 pairs of
spinal
nerves
 V. VERTEBRATE CNS, cont
Human Brain
• Forebrain
 Cerebrum
 Cerebral Cortex
 Corpus Callosum
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus

• Midbrain – Receives & transmits sensory

info to forebrain

• Hindbrain
 Cerebellum
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
ANIMAL NUTRITION & DIGESTION
 I. NUTRITION
• Undernourishment
 Caloric deficiency
• Overnourishment
 Excessive food intake
 Obesity
• Malnourishment
 Essential nutrient deficiency
• Macronutrients
 Essential nutrients
 Materials that must be obtained in
preassembled form
 Essential amino acids
 8 amino acids that must be
obtained in the diet
 Essential fatty acids
 Unsaturated fatty acids
 I. NUTRITION, cont
• Micronutrients:
 Vitamins - Organic coenzymes
 Water Soluble:
 B Vitamins – Required for general metabolism
 Vitamin C – Required for connective tissue production
 Fat Soluble:
 Vitamin A – Vision
 Vitamin D – Ca2+
 Vitamin E - ???
 Vitamin K – blood clotting
 Minerals - Inorganic cofactors
 Na
 Ca
 Fe
 K
 P
 I
 Cl
 I. NUTRITION, cont
Feeding Types & Adaptations
• Opportunistic
 Herbivore
 Carnivore
 Omnivore
• Feeding Adaptations
 Suspension-feeders
 Sift food from water
 Baleen whale
 Substrate-feeders
 Live in or on their food
 Earthworm
 Fluid-feeders
 Suck fluids from a host
 Mosquito
 Bulk-feeders
 Eat large pieces of food
 Most animals
 II. DIGESTION
Overview Of Food Processing
• Ingestion
• Digestion
 Enzymatic hydrolysis
 Intracellular: breakdown within cells (sponges)
 Extracellular: breakdown outside cells (most animals)
 Gastrovascular cavity vs. alimentary canal
• Absorption
• Elimination
IV. DIGESTIVE EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS
• Dentition: an animal’s assortment of teeth
• Digestive system length
• Symbiosis
• Ruminants
 IV. EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS, cont

Ruminant Digestion