The Fluidity of Membranes

-Phospholipids in the plasma membrane can move

within the bilayer
-Most of the lipids, and some proteins, drift laterally
-Rarely does a molecule flip-flop transversely across
the membrane
Figure 7.6

Lateral movement occurs Flip-flopping across the membrane

107 times per second. is rare ( once per month).
Figure 7.5

Fibers of extra-
cellular matrix (ECM)

Glyco- Carbohydrate
protein
Glycolipid
EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE OF
MEMBRANE

Cholesterol

Microfilaments Peripheral
of cytoskeleton proteins
Integral
protein
CYTOPLASMIC SIDE
OF MEMBRANE
-Membrane proteins have a variety of functions.

- - Integral proteins : FUNCTIONS: channels and carriers that help specific solutes
cross the membrane; receptors that serve as cellular recognition sites; enzymes
that catalyze specific chemical reactions; and linkers that anchor proteins in the
plasma membranes to pro- tein filaments inside and outside the cell. LOCATION-
extend into or through the lipid bilayer;

-Peripheral proteins : FUNCTION: serve as enzymes and linkers; support the plasma
membrane; anchor integral proteins; and participate in mechanical activities.
Membrane glyco- proteins function as cell-identity markers. LOCATION: bound to the
surface of the membrane
 Figure 7.10
Signaling molecule
Six major Enzymes
Receptor

functions
of
membrane ATP

proteins
Signal transduction
(a) Transport (b) Enzymatic activity (c) Signal transduction

Glyco-
protein

(d) Cell-cell recognition (e) Intercellular joining (f) Attachment to

the cytoskeleton
and extracellular
matrix (ECM)
CELL DIVISION
= Most cells of the human body undergo cell division, the process by which cells reproduce themselves. The two
types of cell division— somatic cell division and reproductive cell division

- A somatic cell is any cell of the body other than a germ cell.
- A germ cell is a gamete (sperm or oocyte) or any precursor cell destined to become a gamete.

- In somatic cell division, a cell undergoes a nuclear division called mitosis and a cytoplasmic division called
cytokinesis to produce two genetically identical cells, each with the same number and kind of chromosomes as
the original cell. Somatic cell division replaces dead or injured cells and adds new ones during tissue growth.
• - Reproductive cell division is the mechanism that produces gametes, the cells needed to form the next
generation of sexually reproducing organisms. This process consists of a special two- step division called meiosis,
in which the number of chromo-somes in the nucleus is reduced by half.

• Somatic Cell Division

• =TAKENOTE: cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events in which a somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides
in two.
• = When a cell reproduces IN SOMATIC CELL DIVISION, it must replicate (duplicate) all its chromosomes to pass its
genes to the next generation of cells.
• =The cell cycle consists of two major periods: interphase, when a cell is not dividing, and the mitotic (M) phase,
when a cell is dividing
MEIOSIS
-Unlike mitosis, which is complete after a single round, meiosis occurs in two successive stages:
meiosis I and meiosis II.
=Meiosis I, which begins once chromosomal replication is complete, consists of four phases:
prophase I, metaphase I,

• =MEIOSIS II The second stage of meiosis, meiosis II, also consists of four phases: prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II (Figure 3.33a). These phases are similar to those
that occur during mitosis
• - In summary, meiosis I begins with a diploid starting cell and ends with two cells, each with
the haploid number of chromosomes. During meiosis II, each of the two haploid cells formed
during meiosis I divides; the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different
from the original diploid starting cell.
 INOTHERWORDS: The cells created during meiosis are genetically different from the
original cell.

• TAKENOTE::::
• Meiosis- reproductive cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half
• mitosis - somatic cell division resulting in the formation of two identical cells
 Cellular metabolism
• Metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions that occur in the body.
There are two types of metabolism: catabolism and anabolism.
• There are two types of metabolism: catabolism and anabolism.
• catabolism
• Those chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into
simpler ones
• catabolic (decomposition) reactions are exergonic; they produce more
energy than they consume,
• Anabolism
• Chemical reactions that combine simple molecules and monomers to form
the body’s complex structural and functional components.
• Anabolic reactions are endergonic; they consume more energy than they
produce.
• Glycolysis – conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid results in
production of some ATP.
• Krebs cycle- Cycle includes series of oxidation–reduction reactions in
which coenzymes (NAD􏰃 and FAD) pick up hydrogen ions and hydride
ions from oxidized organic acids; some ATP produced. CO2 and H2O are
by-products. Reactions are aerobic.
• Electron transport chain -Third set of reactions in glucose catabolism:
another series of oxidation–reduction reactions, in which electrons are
passed from one carrier to next; most ATP produced. Reactions require
oxygen (aerobic cellular respiration).

•
 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Oxidation is the removal of Reduction ; it is the
electrons from an atom or addition of electrons to a
molecule molecule.
TISSUES
Cell junctions are contact points between the
plasma membranes of tissue cells.
CELL JUNCTIONS
- Most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve cells are tightly joined into
func- tional units.
- Cell junctions are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue
cells.
- Here we consider the five most impor- tant types of cell junctions: tight
junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap
junctions

=Tight junctions consist of weblike strands of transmembrane pro- teins that

fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma mem- branes to seal off
passageways between adjacent cells (Figure 4.2a). Cells of epithelial tissues
that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder have many tight
junctions
=Tight junctions consist of weblike strands of transmembrane pro- teins
that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma mem- branes to
seal off passageways between adjacent cells (Figure 4.2a). Cells of
epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder
have many tight junctions.

• =Adherens junctions (ad-HER-ens) contain plaque (PLAK), a dense layer

of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to
membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton (Figure
4.2b). In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form extensive zones
called adhesion belts because they encircle the cell similar to the way a
belt encircles your waist. Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces
resist separation during various contractile activities, as when food
moves through the intestines.