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CELL
CELLULAR FUNCTIONS IN SOME SPECIALIZED CELLS
• The cell is composed of two basic parts:
Cytoplasm and
Nucleus.

• The cytoplasm is composed of a fluid component, or cytosol, which

contains organelles.
Membranous organelle Non-Membranous
organelle
Rough & Smooth Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria Centrioles
Golgi apparatus Microtubules
Peroxisomes Inclusions (i.e. Glycogen, lipids, crystals,
pigments, hemosiderin etc.)

Lysosomes Cilia - Flagella

Vacuoles & vesicles Microvilli
PLASMA MEMBRANE

• The outermost component of the cell, is the Plasma

membrane or Plasmalemma.

• All eukaryotic cells are enveloped by a limiting membrane

composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and
chains of oligosaccharides covalently linked to phospholipid
and protein molecules.

• Membranes range from 7.5 to 10 nm in thickness and

visible only in the electron microscope.
trilaminar
• Cholesterol molecules modulate the fluidity and movement
of all membrane components.
• The lipid composition of each half of the bilayer is different.

• The carbohydrates of the glycoproteins and glycolipids work

as receptors that participate in cell adhesion, recognition,
and response to protein hormones
 PROTEINS
• Proteins, are major molecular constituent of membranes, can
be divided into two groups.

Integral proteins :
o Incorporated within the lipid bilayer.
o multipass transmembrane proteins.

Peripheral proteins :
exhibit a looser association with one of the two
membrane surfaces.
GLYCOCALYX

• This layer is made of carbohydrate chains linked to membrane proteins

and lipids.
• role in cell recognition and attachment to other cells and to extracellular
molecules.
Transportation

• Some ions, such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+, cross the cell
membrane by passing through integral membrane proteins.
• passive diffusion:(simple, facilitated, or osmosis).
• active transport via ion pumps using (ATP) (primary,
secondary, symport and antiport).
ENDOCYTOSIS

• Bulk uptake of material.

• involves folding and fusion of membrane to form vesicles which enclose
the material transported.

• Cells show three general types of endocytosis.

1. Phagocytosis
2. Fluid-phase Endocytosis (Pinocytosis) vesicle
pinches towards to the cytoplasm, no receptors used
3.Receptor-mediated Endocytosis, vesicle
pinches inwards to the cytoplasm, receptors used
PHAGOCYTOSIS

Phagocytosis :
o (“cell eating”) is
the ingestion of
particles such as
bacteria or dead
cell remnants.
o phagosome.
 PINOCYTOSIS (CELLULAR DRINKING)

o Fluid-phase
Endocytosis :
o smaller invaginations of
the cell membrane form
and entrap extracellular
fluid.
o Pinocytotic vesicles
(about 80 nm in
diameter) pinch off
inwardly from the cell
surface
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

• Binding of the ligand to its

receptor causes receptors to
aggregate in special membrane
regions called coated pits.

• several polypeptides, the major

one being Clathrin.
• form a coated vesicle carrying
the ligand and its receptor.  
EXOCYTOSIS

• the release of vesicles contents into the extracellular space.

• Exocytosis is triggered in many cells by transient increase in
cytosolic Ca2+.
• process of membrane movement and recycling is called
membrane trafficking.
• reducing blood lipid levels
SIGNAL RECEPTION AND TRANSDUCTION
• Soluble extracellular signaling molecules bind receptor
proteins only found on their target cells.
Endocrine signaling:
• carried in the blood.
Paracrine signaling : (LOCATION)
• act only on local cells very close to the source.         
Synaptic signaling :
• neurotransmitters act only on adjacent cells through
synapses.
Autocrine signaling : (CELL TYPE)
• signals bind receptors on the same cell type (eg.
Epithelial, muscular etc). (sending signal to its own self,
maybe sometimes to produce more of a certain protein)
Hydrophilic signaling molecules )how
hydrophilic molecules enter)
Signal transduction.
• Effector proteins are usually ion channels or enzymes that generate large quantities of
small second messenger molecules,
• 1,2-diacyglycerol (DAG),
• cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) it is a secondary messenger to the nucleus
for transcription of important demanding proteins,
• inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3).
• Hydrophobic signaling molecules :
• small steroid and thyroid
hormones, bind reversibly
to carrier proteins in the
plasma for transport
through the body.
• intracellular receptor
proteins are used for
hydrophobic molecules to
cross the membrane.
 NUCLEUS
• blueprint for cell structures and
activities.
• site of (DNA) replication and
transcription into precursor
(RNA)molecules.
• contains enzymes for replication
and repair of newly synthesized
DNA.
• It is enclosed by the nuclear
envelope and contains the nuclear
lamina, nucleolus, and chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores
Nuclear Lamina

• latticelike network of proteins that include Lamins.

• Lamins attach chromatin to the inner membrane of the
nuclear envelope.
Functions:
Maintenance of nuclear shape
Spatial organization of nuclear pores within nuclear membrane
Regulation of transcription
Anchoring of interphase heterochromatin
DNA replication.
Lamina
Nucleolus :

• responsible for (rRNA) synthesis

and ribosome assembly.
• Granular zone—found at the
periphery; contains ribosomal
precursor particles in various
stages of assembly.
• Fibrillar zone—centrally located;
contains ribonuclear protein fibrils.
• Fibrillar center—contains DNA that
is not being transcribed.
Chromatin
Chromatin is a complex of DNA,
histone proteins, and nonhistone
proteins.
• DNA—a double-stranded helical
molecule.
• 3forms: B DNA, Z DNA, and A
DNA. (BAZ)
• Histone proteins—they are important
in forming two types of structures in
chromatin: nucleosomes and solenoid
fibers.
• positively charged proteins.
• lysine and arginine rich
• Nonhistone proteins—enzymes for
replication, transcription, DNA
repair, and regulation.
• acidic or neutral proteins.
Chromatin

6 nucleosomes
become coiled
around an axis,
forming a
solenoid.
Forms of Chromatin

• Heterochromatin (dark stained)

:
highly condensed and
transcriptionally inactive.
• 10% of the chromatin is
heterochromatin.
• Euchromatin (grey) :
a more extended form of
DNA, transcriptionally active.
• 90%of the total chromatin,
• Only 10% is being actively
transcribed.
• In which of the following nuclear structures is DNA actively
transcribed to rRNA?
• (A) Envelope
• (B) Lamina
• (C) Matrix
• (D) Nucleolus
• (E) Pore
• In transmission EM preparations of cells the cell membrane often
appears as a trilaminar structure having two parallel dark-staining
components on either side of an unstained middle layer. This central
poorly stained region of the membrane is primarily responsible for
which of the following functions?
• a. Creation of a barrier to water-soluble molecules
• b. Binding by cellular receptions to specific ligands
• c. Catalyzing membrane-associated activities
• d. Transport of ions
• e. Connections to the cytoskeleton