Professional Documents
Culture Documents
com
Concept Based Learning
Video Companion on Each Chapter
Next Generation
AfraTafreeh.com
Comprehensive Review Series
“PHYSIOLOGY”
Active Recall Based
Integrated Edition
Published by Delhi Academy of Medical Sciences (P) Ltd.
HEAD OFFICE
Delhi Academy of Medical Sciences (P.) Ltd.
4-B, Grovers Chamber, Pusa Road,
Near Karol Bagh Metro Station,
New Delhi-110 005
Phone : 011-4009 4009
http://www.damsdelhi.com
Email: info@damsdelhi.com
ISBN : 978-93-89309-31-7
AfraTafreeh.com
AfraTafreeh.com
1 Basic Concepts
CONCEPTS
 Concept 1.1 Total body water
 Concept 1.2 Measurement of solute concentration
 Concept 1.3
Cell membrane and intercellular
junctions
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
Plasma
(5% of Body Weight)
Interstitial Fluid
(15% of Body Weight)
Note: Non invasive and more convenient method like bio impedance spectroscopy (BIS) is gradually replacing the dilution
method to measure various body fluids including TBW. BIS is based on the principle of measurement of electrical resistance/
impedance. Our body contains ionic fluid that acts as a conductor and offers resistance proportionally to the fluid volume.
2. Age
In both sexes, the values tend to decrease with age.
Total body water is highest in newborns and adult males. During the first year of life
there is a marked decrease in the total body water as a percentage of body weight.
This is because the cell mass which contains at least 20% solids grows at a faster rate
than the ECF volume, in which the percentage of solids is much less.
4 | Physiology
Concept 1.2 : Measurement of Solute Concentrations
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Concepts of mole, equivalent, osmole
• Difference between osmolality and osmolarity
• Normal plasma osmolality and contribution of different substances to plasma
osmolality
• Concept of tonicity
• Formula for calculation of plasma osmolality
• Osmole gap
• Osmotic Pressure
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
N.B. Although the concentration of plasma proteins is large when expressed in grams per liter, it becomes very small when
expressed in moles per liter, because of very high molecular weights of proteins. Since the molar concentration of proteins is
very small (because of their very high molecular weight), they contribute less than 2 mosm/LQ to plasma osmolality. (Osmole
= mole/ number of freely moving particles liberated in solution; proteins liberate 1 freely moving particle in solution,
therefore for proteins, no. of osmoles = no. of moles).
P= nRT
ν
where
AfraTafreeh.com
P = osmotic pressure
n = number of particles
R = Gas constant
ν = volume
T = Absolute temperature
• For a solution with a concentration of 1osm/L,osmotic pressure or π is equal to 19300
mm Hg or for a solution with a concentration of 1 mosm/L,osmotic pressure or π is
equal to 19.3 mm Hg
• Osmotic pressure of a solution = osmotic coefficient X No. of milliosmoles/L X 19.3
mms of Hg
• Osmotic pressure of a solution = osmotic coefficient X No. of osmoles/L X 22.4 atm
• Osmotic coefficient varies with the specific solute and its concentration. It has values
between 0 and 1. For example, the osmotic coefficient of NaCl is 1.00 in an infinitely
dilute solution but decreases to 0.93 at the physiological concentration of 0.15 mol/L.
• Osmotic pressure depends on the number rather than the type of particles in solution.
Such properties which depend on the number (or the concentration of solutes
present) rather than the type of particles (or their chemical properties) are called
fundamental colligative properties.
• Other examples of fundamental colligative properties are:
Vapour pressure lowering
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Cell Membrane
AfraTafreeh.com
Pumps
Ion channels
Enzymes
Structural proteins
8 | Physiology
Intercellular connections
These are of two types
1. Junctions that fasten the cells to one another
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Hemisdesmosomes
Focal adhesions
2. Junctions that permit transfer of ions and molecules from one cell to the other
Gap junctions
Junctions that permit transfer of ions and molecules from one cell to
the other
These are
(i) Gap junctions
Gap junctions are made of units called connexons.
AfraTafreeh.com
Each connexon is made of six protein subunits called connexins.
The connexins surround a central pore.
The diameter of each channel is about 2 nm and the pore diameter in the channel
is estimated to be 0.8 to 1.4nm.
Connexon of one cell is aligned with the connexon of a neighboring cell- this
permits an easy passage of ions, sugars, amino acids and other solutes with
molecular weights up to 1000, from one cell to the other without entering the ECF.
Gap junctions form electrical synapsesQ.
They reduce the intercellular distanceQ from a normal of 20 nm to 2-4 nm.
10 | Physiology
Concept 1.4 : Transport across cell membranes
Learning objectives: To enumerate and understand
• Differences between passive and active transport across the cell membrane
• Different types of passive transport- simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, non-ionic
diffusion and osmosis with examples of each
• Different types of active transport across the cell membrane- primary and secondary
active with examples of each
• Exocytosis, endocytosis, transcytosis
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
Passive transport
a. Simple diffusion
All gases and lipid soluble substances move across the cell membrane by simple
diffusion.
No carrier molecule involved.
Examples: O2/CO2 exchange in alveoli; alcohols, steroids and other lipid soluble
substances, weak organic acids and bases being lipid soluble move by simple
diffusion, (movement of water through aquaporins or water channels, movement
of ions through ion channels is also by the process of diffusion i.e., from an area
of high concentration to an area of low concentration).
Follows Fick’s law of diffusion. The Fick’s Law of diffusion states that
J = - DA ΔC / Δx
Where
J = Net rate of diffusion
D = Diffusion coefficient
A = Cross sectional area
∆ C = Concentration difference on the two sides of the membrane
∆ x = thickness of the membrane
Basic Concepts | 11
The negative sign indicates the
direction of diffusion. (For diffusion
from higher to lower concentration,
∆ C/ x is negative, so multiplying by–
∆
2. Surface area- net diffusion of the substance is directly proportional to the total area
of the membrane. In emphysema there is breakdown of alveolar walls producing a
decrease in the alveolar surface area available for diffusion. Emphysematous patients
have a decreased diffusing capacity of the lungs.
3. Concentration gradient- more the gradient, more is the rate of transport.
12 | Physiology
4. Thickness of membrane- the net transport of a substance is inversely proportional to
the thickness of membrane. In lung fibrosis, there is an increase in the thickness of
the respiratory membrane producing a decrease in diffusing capacity.
ION Channels
Movement of ions through ion channels is passive and by diffusion, that is, from higher to lower
concentration without requiring energy or a carrier protein.
Types of ion channels are:
• Voltage-gated, where changes in membrane potential alter channel openings
• Ligand-gated, which open in response to ligand binding. Ligand can be external (eg., a
neurotransmitter or a hormone), or internal (intracellular Ca2+, cAMP, lipids or one of the
G proteins produced in cells can bind directly to channels and activate them)
• Phosphorylation-gated, where protein phosphorylation or dephosphorylation regulate
opening or closing
• Stretch or pressure-gated or mechano-sensitive, where mechanical stretch of the membrane
results in channel opening
Ion channels can be
• Specific, for Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+
• Non specific –these permit the movement of cations and ions
• Each channel exists in multiple forms with diverse properties.
• Cl- channels from the CIC family (in plants, bacteria and animals)- dimers
• Na+ channels, including the epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs) are trimers (3 subunits- α,
β, γ)
• K+ channels- tetramers, the four subunits forming a central pore
AfraTafreeh.com
• Acquaporins- tetramers, having a pore in each subunit; additionally these four subunits
form acentral pore
• Ligand gated, such as the acetylcholine receptor, GABAA receptor, Gycine receptor-
pentamers
• Cl- channels in humans- pentamers
The patch clamp technique
• It is a laboratory technique in electrophysiology that allows the study of single or multiple
ion channels in cells.
• The ion current through a simple voltage gated channel can be studied by the patch clamp
technique.
• The patch clamp technique is a refinement of the voltage clamp. In the the voltage clamp
method ion currents through the membranes of excitable cells, such as neurons, are
measured while holding the membrane voltage at a set level.
• Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann developed the patch clamp in the late 1970s and early
1980s. They received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991 for this work.
• A micropipette of tip diameter 1-2 micrometers is abutted on the outer surface of the
membrane and suction is applied to form a tight seal to the membrane. The patch of
membrane under the pipette usually contains only a few transport proteins, allowing for
their detailed biophysical study.
• Different types of patches can be made:
Cell-attached or on-cell patch clamp
Outside-out patch
Perforated patch
Facilitated diffusion
AfraTafreeh.com
Simple diffusion
can cross the membrane in the non – ionized (undissociated) form but cannot
cross the membrane in the ionized form.
The molecules of the undissociated substance diffuse from one side of the
membrane to the other and then dissociate- this causes further movement of the
undissociated substance from one side to the other.
Ammonia transport in kidney- in the inner medullary collecting duct, is an
example of non-ionic diffusion. Ammonia is secreted into the urine of the cells
in an undissociated form but acquires the H+ in the lumen to become NH4+.
This decreases the concentration of NH3 in the lumen, thereby maintaining the
concentration gradient for diffusion of ammonia.
14 | Physiology
Another example of non-ionic diffusion is the absorption of salicylates in the
d. Osmosis
Diffusion of a solvent (water) from a dilute to a concentrated solution through a
Active Transport
Transport is ‘uphill’, that is against an electrochemical gradient.
Energy is used.
Types:
• Primary active transport:
Energy is derived directly by hydrolysis of ATP by the transporter itself.
in the parietal cells of stomach and in the collecting duct of the kidney, SERCA
(sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum calcium pump) in sarcoplasmic reticulum of
skeletal and cardiac muscles.AfraTafreeh.com
Na K ATPase
+ +
▫ β1 subunit is widely distributed but is absent in certain astrocytes, vestibular cells of inner ear, and
for sodium- sodium moves along its electrochemical gradient established by the
sodium potassium pump and this movement of sodium provides the energy for
AfraTafreeh.com
active transport of some other substance- if this sodium coupled transport is in
the same direction as sodium, it is k/a co-transport or symport and if it is in the
opposite direction as sodium, it is k/a counter transport or antiport.
Eg. Sodium – linked glucose transport (i.e. SGLT) in kidney & GIT.
(Note: All transport mechanisms which are linked to Na+ entry or K+ exit are
secondary active).
Examples of secondary active transport co-transport are:
16 | Physiology
• Kidney
PCT- SGLT, Na+- aminoacid co-transport,Na+- Pi co-transport in the PCT
AfraTafreeh.com
SNAP-25
Endocytosis
• Consists of
Phagocytosis (“cell eating”)
endocytosis)
Caveolae- dependent uptake (caveolae are prominent
Transcytosis
Absorption by endocytosis and exocytosis occurring on two opposite sides of the cell;
e.g.,IgA in the maternal colostrum is absorbed in the intestinal epithelium of the infant
by the process of transcytosis.
18 | Physiology
Concept 1.5 : Starling’s Forces in a Tissue Capillary
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Concepts of hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures
• Forces responsible for filtration
• Formulae for the net filtration pressure and rate of tissue fluid formation
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Clinical application
• Right heart failure causes a decrease in venous return which, because of back
pressure, increases the hydrostatic pressure especially in the lower limb capillaries-
this increases the capillary hydrostatic pressure (“push force”) resulting in increased
tissue fluid formation and edema.
• Hypoalbuminemia seen in patients of liver disease and nephrotic syndrome results
in a reduction in colloid osmotic pressure (“pull force”) which in turn increases tissue
fluid formation and edema.
Solvent drag: As water moves across the tight junctions by osmosis, it can also carry
with it some of the solutes, a process referred to as solvent drag
Important: Rate of transport in different types of membrane proteins: Pores
(aquaporins) > channels, when open (voltage gated channels, mechanosensitive
channels) > transporters (carriers)Q
20 | Physiology
Concept 1.6 : Donnan effect and Gibbs- Donnan equilibrium
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the concept of Donnan effect and Gibbs- Donnan equilibrium and
derivation of the Gibbs- Donnan equation.
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
5 mins
Donnan effect
• For Donnan effect to occur, two compartments must be separated by a semi permeable
membrane and on one side of this semi permeable membrane is the presence of
proteins which are impermeant and negatively charged.
• Presence of an impermeant ion (e.g A– in side 1) on one side of the membrane repels
similarly charged permeant ions to the other
side and holds oppositely charged permeant Side 1 Side 2
ions to the same side, i.e., negative charge of
a non-diffusible anion (eg., proteins) hinders Eg. A–
diffusion of diffusible cations and favors diffusion
of diffusible anions
Gibbs – Donnan Equilibrium
AfraTafreeh.com
This can be considered as the ‘mathematics’ of the Donnan effect.
The effects of the presence of the impermeant ion on the distribution of permeant ions
at equilibrium are:
a) It causes an asymmetric distribution of the permeant ions.
b) More osmotically active particle on the side containing the impermeant ion.
c) The product of the concentration of the permeant ions on one side equals the product
of the concentration of the permeant ions on the other side. This is the Gibbs Donnan
equation. It holds good for any pair of cations and anions of the same valency.
d) However, the total number of positive charges on one side equals the total number
of negative charges,i.e., electroneutrality is maintained on the same side of the
membrane.
Side X Side Y
Example to illustrate the above
Donnan and Gibbs showed that in the presence of an
K+ 9 K+ 6
impermeant or non diffusible ion, at equilibrium Cl- 4 Cl- 6
[K x]
+
=
[K ]+
y
Protein 5
[K+y] [Cl ]-
x
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
5 mins
Nernst Equation
• If the cell membrane if freely permeable, ions will move across the cell membrane
along their concentration gradients.
• If the cell membrane becomes freely permeable to chloride, chloride will move from
outside to inside the cell along its concentration gradient but the presence of proteins
on the inside opposes this move.
• At equilibrium there is no net flux (that is chloride influx equals efflux) and at this point
there is an unequal distribution of chloride across the cell membrane- the potential
difference at equilibrium is known as the equilibrium potential of chloride and the
magnitude of this equilibrium potential can be calculated by the Nernst equation.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Nernst equation gives the value of equilibrium potential or isoelectric potential.
(E) Equilibrium potential is the membrane potential at which equilibrium is reached
(equilibrium is reached when the influx equals the efflux i.e. there is no net flux of
that ion)
• Its magnitude can be calculated from the Nernst equation, as follows
2.3 RT log[C1]
E(mV) =
FZCl [C2]
Where ECl = equilibrium potential in mV
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
F = faraday (number of coulombs per mole of charge)
Z
= valency of the ion
[C1] = concentration of the ion on one side of the cell membrane
[C2] = concentration of the ion on the other side of the cell membrane
Replacing some of the constants with numerical values, the equation for Cl- (negatively
charged ion) and K+ (positive charged ion) becomes
[Cli] [Ko]
ECl = 61.5 log (at 37° C); EK+ = 61.5 log (at 37° C)
[Clo] [Ki]
The equilibrium potential for the different ions, calculated from the standard values in
most mammalian spinal neurons, is as given below
E Na+ = +60mV E K+ = –90mV
E CL = –70mV
–
E Mg++ = 0mV
E Ca = +125mV
++
22 | Physiology
Concept 1.8: Goldman – Hodgkin – Katz (G-H-K) equation or, Goldman
constant field equation or chord conductance equation
and genesis of RMP (resting Membrane Potential)
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the concept of G-H-K equation and its application in calculation of the
resting membrane potential.
• To enumerate the factors responsible for genesis of RMP and the contribution of each
• To know the normal values of RMP of different cells of the body
• To understand the effect of changes in ECF sodium, potassium and calcium on RMP
and therefore, excitability of cells and their clinical implications.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
5 mins
Genesis of R.M.P.
The factors which contribute towards genesis of RMP are:
• Diffusion of K+ : This is the most important causeQ
• Na+–K+ ATPase
By itself, it contributes a small percentage.
In cells with RMP of –90mV, contribution of Na+–K+ ATPase is only –4mV (its
RBCs -10mV
AfraTafreeh.com
Basic Concepts | 25
Concept 1.9 : Composition of ECF and ICF
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the differences in composition of ECF and ICF with attention to the
differences in distribution of ions
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
5 mins
• Electrolytes constitute about 7% of the total body weight
• The following table shows the distribution of the electrolytes in the ECF and the ICF
ECF ( in mEq/litre)
Cations Anions
Na 145 Cl 100
K 5 HCO3 27
Ca 2 PO4--- 2
Mg 2 SO4-- 1
Organic acids 5
AfraTafreeh.com
Proteins 19
ICF ( in mEq/litre)
Cations Anions
Na 10 Cl 10
K 150 HCO3 10
Ca 3 PO4--- 90
Mg 15 SO4-- 15
Organic acids -
Proteins 52
Important:
• Essentially all of the body potassium is in the exchangeable pool
• Only 65-70% (two-third) of the body sodium is exchangeable
• Almost all of the body Ca and Mg are non-exchangeable
• Only the exchangeable solutes are metabolically active
ELECTROLYTES
AfraTafreeh.com
Losses
Na K Cl
AfraTafreeh.com
28 | Physiology
Important Tables (Active recall)
Ion Equilibrium Potential
AfraTafreeh.com
Cell RMP
2 Nerve & Muscle
CONCEPTS
 Concept 2.1 Functional anatomy
 Concept 2.2 Axoplasmic transport
 Concept 2.3 Nerve degeneration and regeneration
 Concept 2.4 Recording potential changes in cells
 Concept 2.5 Electrotonic potentials, local potential and
action potential
 Concept 2.6 Phases of an action potential
 Concept 2.7 Strength-duration curve
 Concept 2.8 Conduction of an action potential
AfraTafreeh.com
 Concept 2.9 Nerve fibre classification
 Concept 2.10 Properties of nerve fibres
 Concept 2.11 Functional anatomy of skeletal muscles
 Concept 2.12
Transmission across the neuromuscular
junction
 Concept 2.13 Excitation- contraction coupling
 Concept 2.14 Actin-myosin cross bridge formation and
cross bridge cycling
 Concept 2.15 Muscle fibres and motor units
 Concept 2.16 Isotonic and isometric muscle contractions
 Concept 2.17 Length- tension relationship
 Concept 2.18 Force (or load)- velocity relationship
 Concept 2.19 Sources of energy for muscle contraction
30 | Physiology
• The human central nervous system contains 100 billion neurons.
• There are 2-10 times as many glial cells as neurons
• 40% of the human genes participate in the formation of the central nervous system.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
Glial cells
• 10-50 times as many glial cells as neurons.
• Do not conduct impulses.
• Retain ability to divide throughout life.
• Glial cells have an important role to play in communication along with neurons and
unlike neurons, continue to undergo cell division in adulthood.
• Types of glial cells- AfraTafreeh.com
Microglia- these are the scavenger cells.
▫ Both fibrous and protoplasmic astrocytes send processes to blood vessels, where
arise. True unipolar cells are present only in the embryonic stage in human beings.
The primary sensory neuron is psuedounipolar.
Bipolar- have two poles, one for axon and other for dendrite. E.g., found in
vestibular and cochlear ganglia, in the nasal olfactory epithelium, and as bipolar
cells in the retina.
Multipolar have many poles. Most vertebrate neurons are multipolar.
Sensory neurons
Nerve & Muscle | 31
3. Dending upon the length of axon
Golgi type I/ projection neurons- have long axons, includes neurons forming
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
ATP
motors
Molecular motors- kinesin, dyenin, myosin V: these carry their ‘cargo’ from one
1. Anterograde AfraTafreeh.com
• Occurs at a rate of 0.5-10mm/day
• Occurs at the rate of 400mm/day • This is always anterograde
• Movement is towards the “+” or “assembly” end • Transport of soluble enzymes, tubulins of
of the microtubules microtubules, protein subunits of neurofilaments,
• By kinesin etc
• Transport of mitochondria, short tubules of
reticulum, small vesicles, lysosomes, actin,
myosin and the clathrin used in recycling of
synaptic vesicle membrane etc.
2. Retrograde
• Occurs at a rate of 200mm/day
• Movement is towards the “-“ or “disassembly”
end of the microtubules
• By Dyenin
• Transport of proteins, small molecules, also
tetanus toxin, neurotropic viruses (e.g., polio,
herpes simplex and rabies), nerve growth factor
Nerve & Muscle | 33
Concept 2.3 : Nerve degeneration and regeneration
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the Seddon’s classification of nerve injuries
• To differentiate between the different types of nerve injuries
• To learn the sequence of events in Wallerian degeneration and regeneration
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Nerve injury can occur due to injury, disease (diabetic neuropathy, leprosy)
Seddon’s classification of nerve injuries
Retrograde Retrograde
• Same changes as above but only upto the nearest • Same as above
node of Ranvier
Regeneration
• Regeneration will occur if
AfraTafreeh.com
The distance between the two cut ends is less than 3mms
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
2. Concept of polarity
All cells have a resting membrane potential.
If a cell with a R.M.P. of say, -70mv changes to say –60mv, the cell is said to
be depolarized and the potential of the cell decreases (note that it is a potential
difference and therefore, one has to ignore the negative sign while commenting
AfraTafreeh.com
on the change of polarity).
If the membrane potential changes from the resting potential of -70mV to a more
negative value, of say -80mV, the cell is said to be hyperpolarized and there is an
increase in potential.
(S) (R)
• The recording electrodes can be such that one electrode is on the surface and the
other, inside the cell; or else, both recording electrodes can be on the surface.
36 | Physiology
• When both the electrodes are on the surface, a biphasic action potentialQ is
recorded but when one electrode is on the surface and the other inside the cell a
monophasic action potentialQ is recorded.
Note:
• Nerve is a poor conductor of electricity.
• Nerve can conduct impulses in both directions (bi-directional conduction).
• However, once it starts going in one direction, it cannot come back because it finds
the previous part of the nerve refractory.
• Stimulation almost always occurs at cathode.
AfraTafreeh.com
Nerve & Muscle | 37
Concept 2.5 : Electrotonic potential, local potentials and action
potential
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the concepts of electrotonic potentials, local and action potential
• To enumerate the differences between local and action potentials
• To understand the mechanism of depolarization in different cells
• To enumerate the differences between voltage gated sodium and voltage gated
potassium channels
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
To Summarise,
Electrotonic potential (is due to) Passive addition of charge
Local response (is due to) Opening of some of the Na+ channels
Action potential (is due to) Opening of many Na+ channels by positive feedback mechanism
Amplitude is proportional to the intensity of stimulus Amplitude of action potential remains constant with
AfraTafreeh.com increasing strength of stimulus
Can be generated either spontaneously or in response Action potential is generated only in response to
to either physical or chemical stimuli membrane depolarization
Open in voltage range of -70 to +30mV Open in voltage range of -70 to +30mV
Two gates- activation gate (m gate) towards the One gate (n gate) towards the outside
outside and inactivation gate (h gate) towards the
inside
Time Needed
1st reading 15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
1. Stimulus artefact This is due to the leakage of current from stimulating to recording electrodes
(Advantage: it marks the point of stimulus).
2 Latent period Time taken for the impulse to travel from stimulating to recording electrodes
If the distance between the two is known, the speed of the conduction can
be calculated.
3 Change from RMP of This is due to opening of voltage gated sodium channels, causing a sodium
–70mv to –55 mv influx and decrease in membrane potential.
4 Firing level Once firing level is reached a large number of sodium channels open up (by
a positive feedback loop) and an action potential results.
5 OvershootQ This is the potential change from 0 to +35mv.
6 Repolarization This is due to closure of inactivation gates of sodium channels which
decreases the sodium influx AND opening of voltage gated K+ channels
producing an efflux of potassium.
7 After depolarization During this phase, the excitability of nerve is increased when compared with
resting phase.
8 After- hyperpolarisation During this phase, the excitability of nerve is decreased when compared with
resting phase. This phase is due to a slow closure of the potassium channels.
Nerve & Muscle | 41
Feedback control in voltage gated sodium and potassium channels during
an action potential
Sodium channels exert a positive feedback during the depolarization phase of an action
potential. This positive feedback spiral is also k/a Hodgkin Cycle.
Potassium channels bring the action potential to an end and cause closure of their gates
AfraTafreeh.com
through a negative feedback process
• Entry of Na+ causes the opening of more voltage-gated Na+ channels and further
depolarization, setting up a positive feedback loop– the rapid upstroke in the
membrane potential ensues.
• The membrane potential moves toward the equilibrium potential for Na+ (+60 mV)
but does not reach it during the action potential, primarily because the increase in
Na+ conductance is short-lived.
• Na+ channels rapidly enter a closed state called the inactivated state and remain
in this state for a few milliseconds before returning to the resting state, when they
AfraTafreeh.com
again can be activated. In addition, the direction of the electrical gradient for Na+ is
reversed during the overshoot because the membrane potential is reversed, and this
limits Na+ influx; also the voltage-gated K+ channels open. These factors contribute
to repolarization.
• Opening of voltage-gated K+ channels is slower and more prolonged than the opening
of the Na+ channels, and consequently, much of the increase in K+ conductance comes
after the increase in Na+ conductance.
• Net movement of positive charge out of the cell due to K+ efflux at this time helps
complete the process of repolarization.
• The slow return of the K+ channels to the closed state also explains the after-
hyperpolarization, followed by a return to the resting membrane potential. Thus,
voltage-gated K+ channels bring the action potential to an end and cause closure of
their gates through a negative feedback process.
Refractory period
• Refractory period is the period during which a neuron is refractory to stimulation.
• It is divided into an absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period.
• Absolute refractory period is the period from the time the firing level is reached until
repolarization is about one- third complete.
• During this period, no stimulus, no matter how strong, will be able to excite the nerve.
• Relative refractory period lasts from the point where repolarization is one- third
complete till the end of hyperpolarization.
• During this period, stronger than normal stimuli can cause excitation.
Nerve & Muscle | 43
Concept 2.7 : Strength- duration curve
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the concept of strength-duration curve
• To define rheobase, utilization time and chronaxie
• To understand the significance of chronaxie
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
(i) Rheobase The minimum strength of stimulus (electric current) which if applied for
adequate time produces a response.
(ii) Utilization time Time taken for the rheobase current to stimulate a nerve
(iii) Chronaxie Time taken for twice the rheobase current to stimulate a nerve.
Other Terms
(i) Biphasic action potential This type of record is obtained when both the recording electrodes
are on the surface of the nerve.
(ii) Monophasic action potential This type of a record is obtained when one electrode is on the
surface and the second electrode is inserted into the nerve.
(iii) Compound action potential Seen in a mixed nerve, wherein there may be several fibre types.
(multi peaked action potential)
(iv) Adaptation Slowly rising currents fail to fire (stimulate) the nerve because
the nerve adapts to the applied stimulus
Cause: The opening of slow K+ channels balances the gradual
opening of Na+ channels.
AfraTafreeh.com
Nerve & Muscle | 45
Concept 2.8 : Conduction of an Action Potential
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the mechanism of conduction of action potential and concept of
“current sink”
• To enumerate and understand the factors affecting velocity of conduction of nerve
impulse
• To understand the concepts of axoplasmic resistance, membrane resistance and
membrane capacitance and their effect on velocity of conduction of nerve impulse
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Causes
AfraTafreeh.com
Which in turn causes
• The nerve fiber is polarized at rest with positive charges lined up outside the cell
membrane and negative charges lined up on the inside of the cell membrane.
• During the action potential this polarity is reversed- the inside now becomes positive
and the outside is negative.
• Current flows from a positive to negative area.
• Positive charges from the membrane ahead of and behind the action potential flow
into the area of negativity represented by the action potential (“current sink”).
• Movement of positive charges decreases the polarity of the membrane ahead of and
behind the action potential.
• Such electrotonic depolarization initiates a local response, and when the firing level
is reached, a propagated response occurs that in turn electrotonically depolarizes the
membrane in front of it (conduction of a nerve impulse occurs electrotonically).
AfraTafreeh.com
• In a myelinated nerve the local circuit of current flow occurs only from one node of
Ranvier to the adjacent node. That is, the impulse or the action potential jumps from
one node of Ranvier to the next- this is saltatory conduction.
A large diameter, myelinated nerve fibre has low axoplasmic resistance (Ra), high membrane resistance
(Rm) and low membrane capacitance, all of which contribute to a faster velocity of conduction.
(A nerve has the properties of an electrical cable, namely electrical resistance and
capacitance (the ability to store charge)
Capacitance, C, is defined as the charge, Q, which must be placed on two surfaces in
order to set up a unit potential difference, V, between them
AfraTafreeh.com
C = Q/V
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Delta AfraTafreeh.com
Fast pain, temperature (cold), touch
2-5 12-30
C Dorsal root Slow pain, temperature (cold & warmth), 0.4-1.2 0.5-2
crude touch, pressure, itch, tickle, some
reflex responses
IV Slow pain, temperature (cold and warmth), crude touch, pressure, itch, Dorsal root C
tickle
Nerve & Muscle | 49
Relative susceptibility of mammalian A, B and C nerve fibers to conduction
block produced by various agents.
Susceptibility to Most susceptible Intermediate Least susceptible
Pressure A B C
Hypoxia B A C
Local anesthetics A B C
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 02 mins
1. Excitability
2. Conductivity- conduction is an active, self-propagating process, and the impulse
moves along the nerve at a constant amplitude and velocity (the nerve is in fact a
poor passive conductor of electricity).
3. All or none response- A single nerve fiber always obeys the ‘all or none law’.
4. Refractory period-
Absolute refractory period corresponds to the period of action potential from
firing level until repolarization is almost one third complete. During the absolute
refractory period there is no response irrespective of strength of stimulus.
Relative refractory period extends from the end of absolute refractory period to
the start of after depolarization of the action potential. During this period response
may occur if stimulus strength is increased.
AfraTafreeh.com
5. Summation- can be temporal or spatial summation.
6. Accommodation- a slowly rising current fails to stimulate a nerve. If the rate of
rise of the current is too slow, the nerve accommodates to the passage of current.
To minimize accommodations, stimulus currents which rise extremely rapidly are
employed.
7. Indefatiguability.
Nerve & Muscle | 51
Concept 2.11 : Functional anatomy of skeletal muscle
Learning Objectives
• To understand and enumerate the hierarchy of skeletal muscles
• To enumerate the sarcolemmal proteins (dystroglycan-sarcoglycan complex),
understand their functions and discuss the clinical conditions which arise because of
mutation of these proteins
• To enumerate the different types of proteins in skeletal muscles and their functions
• To clearly differentiate the bands and lines in skeletal muscle
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Made up of
Made up of
AfraTafreeh.com
Muscle fibril
Made up of
Muscle filaments
AfraTafreeh.com
▫ Heads are made up of the light chains and the amino terminal portions of the
heavy chains
▫ Heads contain an actin-binding site and a catalytic site that hydrolyzes ATP and
2. Regulatory (‘relaxing’)
Tropomyosin
▫ Tropomyosin are long filaments located in the groove between the two chains
of actin.
▫ Each molecule of tropomyosin covers seven active sites on actin.
Troponin
▫ Troponin are small globular proteins located at intervals along the tropomyosin
molecules.
▫ Each troponin has three subunits- Troponin T binds troponin to tropomyosin;
AfraTafreeh.com
troponin I inhibits the interaction of myosin and actin; troponin C contains the
binding sites for calcium that initiates contraction.
3. Anchoring/ structural
α-actinin- binds actin to Z lines
Titin- connects Z lines to M lines; provides a scaffolding to the sarcomere, provides
muscle with its elasticityQ; titin is the largest known protein with a molecular
weight of 3000000.
Desmin- binds Z lines to plasma membrane
Bands / Lines
Bands – A, I, H ; Lines – Z, M
• A band – Dark, ‘anisotropic to light’, made up of myosin and overlapped actin.
• I band – Light, ‘isotropic’ to light, made up of mainly actin; half of I-band lies in one
sarcomere and half lies in the neighboring sarcomere.
• H band – The lighter portion in the middle of A band, where there is no overlap of
actin and myosin (that is, it is made of only myosin).
• Z line – The actin filaments get anchored here; the area between 2 adjacent Z-lines
is called a sarcomere.
• M line is a transverse line seen in the middle of the H band- this is the site of reversal
of polarity of the myosin molecules in each of the thick filaments.
• Pseudo-H zone - M line plus the narrow light areas on either side of it are called the
pseudo-H zone.
54 | Physiology
• When a muscle contracts, the two Z- lines come closer; the length of the A band
remains constant whereas the length of I and H band decreasesQ and M – line becomes
more prominent.
AfraTafreeh.com
Nerve & Muscle | 55
Sarcotubular System
Made up of
1. L-tubule (Longitudinal tubule)
This is the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
skeletal muscle
T-tubule is located at the A-I junction.
The L-tubule (Sarcoplasmic reticulum) has got ‘distended ends’ called cistern.
AfraTafreeh.com
The 2 cisterns associated on either side of the T-tubule – is called a triad.
Cistern is a storehouse of calcium.
Receptors
1. T-tubule has dihydrophyridine receptor- this is a voltage-gated Ca++ channel.
2. The L tubule cistern has ryanodine receptors- ryanodine receptor is a ligand gated
calcium channel.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Nerve & Muscle | 57
Sequence
Action potential reaches the nerve terminal
Influx of calcium
Release of Acetylcholine
Influx of sodium
(predominates over efflux of potassium)
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
Events
• The depolarization at the motor-end plate is called end plate potential (EPP)
• The depolarization at motor-end plate, if large enough, causes action potential in the
adjacent parts of the muscle cell membrane
• The action potential thus generated spreads over the muscle fiber membrane and
reaches the muscle cell interior via the T-tubules
• The DHPR (dihydropyriidne) receptor on the T-tubule membrane acts as a voltage
sensor and triggers release of Ca++ from the terminal cisterns of the L-tubule via a
physical interaction with the ryanodine receptor (RyR) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum
• The released calcium is amplified through ‘calcium induced calcium release’
• The released, Ca++ binds to troponin – C. This allows the troponin to get ‘lifted off’
the tropomyosin
AfraTafreeh.com
• The tropomyosin ‘moves away’, uncovering the active sites where myosin heads bind
to actin
• This triggers the cross-bridge cycling, including the power-stroke
• Relaxation is brought about by the active pumping of Ca++ back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum (by the sarcoplasmic or endoplasmic reticulum Ca++ATPase or SERCA pump)
Note:- (i) the troponin – tropomyosin complex is the relaxing protein that inhibits the
actin myosin interaction, (ii) ATP provides energy for both contraction (at the myosin
head) and relaxation (via SERCA)Q
ContractureQ- if transport of Ca++ into the SR is inhibited due to any cause, relaxation
does not occur; the resulting sustained contraction is known as contracture. This is a
reversible condition.
Rigor- when muscle fibers are completed depleted of ATP and phosphorylcreatine, they
develop a state of rigidity called rigor. When this occurs after death, the condition is k/a
rigor mortis.
Nerve & Muscle | 59
Concept 2.14 : Actin-myosin cross bridge formation and cross bridge
cycling
Learning Objectives: To understand the sequence of events in actin- myosin cross
bridge formation and cross bridge cycling
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
At rest, myosin head is in a high energy, high affinity state (“Cocked” state)
Release of calcium from SR uncovers active sites on actin triggering muscle contraction
Myosin head binds with active site on actin (cross bridge formation)
ADP is released
Power stroke
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Contractile and elastic components of a muscle
According to the three component model, the skeletal muscle consists of;
• Contractile component
Represents the thick and thin filaments present in myofibrils
Consists of Titin and the elastic fibres in the tendon of the muscle
In resting conditions, the SEC offers resistance to passive stretch and also explains
explains why the muscle regains its original length after it is passively stretched.
In isotonic contraction this component gets folded up.
shortens.
3. Recovery heat is the heat produced in excess of resting heat, following a contraction-
it is the heat liberated by the metabolic processes that restore the muscle to its
precontraction state. Recovery heat of muscle is approximately equal to the initial
heat; that is, the heat produced during recovery is equal to the heat produced during
contraction.
4. Relaxation heat- in an isotonically contracting muscle extra heat, in addition to
recovery heat, is produced to restore the muscle to its original length- this is k/a
relaxation heat. External work must be done on the muscle to return it to its previous
length, and relaxation heat is mainly a manifestation of this work.
Relaxation heat is produced only in a muscle contracting isotonically.
64 | Physiology
Concept 2.17 : Length – tension relationship (Frank- Starling’s Law)
Learning Objectives:
• To define the length- tension relationship
• To apply the length- tension relationship to the heart
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
66 | Physiology
Concept 2.18 : Force- velocity relationship
Learning Objectives:
• To determine the relationship between afterload/ force and velocity of contraction and
to study the force- velocity curve
• To appreciate the facts that the maximum velocity of contraction (Vmax) is when
afterload is zero and when velocity is zero (work done = zero) the contraction is
isometric
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
68 | Physiology
Concept 2.19 : Sources of energy for muscle contraction during
exercise
Learning Objectives: To enumerate the sources of energy for muscle contraction
during exercise and understand the significance of each.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Fasciculation:
• Involuntary, jerky, visible contractions of one or more motor units.
• Occur due to abnormal and spontaneous discharge of spinal motor neurons.
• Common in lower motor neuron diseases.
• Spontaneous impulses arise as the distal axon atrophies. Until atrophy is complete, the muscle cells
composing the motor unit will contract in response to these spontaneous impulses.
• Visible grossly.
• These contractions are strong enough to allow measurement of potentials with skin electrodes.
AfraTafreeh.com
70 | Physiology
Worksheet
• MCQ OF “NERVE & MUSCLE” FROM DQB
AfraTafreeh.com
Nerve & Muscle | 71
Important Tables (Active recall)
Type I muscle fibre Type II muscle fibre
AfraTafreeh.com
72 | Physiology
AfraTafreeh.com
3 Kidney
CONCEPTS
 Concept 3.1 Functional anatomy
 Concept 3.2 Glomerular filtration
 Concept 3.3 Renal handling of sodium
 Concept 3.4 Renal handling of potassium
 Concept 3.5
AfraTafreeh.com
Renal handling of glucose
 Concept 3.6 Renal handling of water
 Concept 3.7 Renal handling of H+
 Concept 3.8 Renal handling of urea
 Concept 3.9 Renal handling of phosphate
 Concept 3.10 Renal handling of calcium
74 | Physiology
Concept 3.1: Functional Anatomy
Learning objectives:
At the end of this segment the student will be able to
• Enumerate functions of kidney
• Define nephron
• Enumerate differences between the cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons
• Parts of nephron
• Enumerate important histological features cells of different segments of tubule
• Enumerate layers of glomerular filtration membrane
• Understand why the basement membrane is the limiting factor for filtration
• Understand the importance of mesangial cells in regulating GFR
• Identify the factors which cause mesangial cell contraction and relaxation
• Identify the components of Juxtaglomerular apparatus
• Enumerate the agents causing constriction and dilatation of renal blood vessels
• Enumerate the effect of sympathetic stimulation on kidneys
• Differentiate between renal blood flow and renal plasma flow
Time Needed
1st reading 20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Functions of kidney
• Excretion of metabolic waste products (eg., urea, ammonia) and foreign chemicals
(such as drug metabolites)
• Regulation of water and electrolyte homeostasis
• Regulation of ECF volume (and therefore, blood pressure)
• Acid- base homeostasis
• Gluconeogenesis during fasting
• Endocrine functions- kidneys can secrete kinins, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol,
erythropoeitin
Parts of nephron:
AfraTafreeh.com
76 | Physiology
Differences between cells of PCT and CD
PCT CD
Brush border present Reduced or no brush border
Carbonic anhydrase present in luminal membrane No carbonic anhydrase in luminal membrane
Has ‘leaky’ tight junctions Has ‘tight’ tight junction
More mitochondria Fewer mitochondria
AfraTafreeh.com
PCT CD
Note: There are “tight junction” between the tubular epithelial cells towards the luminal side- the tight junctions are “leaky”
in the PT and “tight tight junctions” in the CD.
IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Total Blood Flow Liver > Kidney > Sk Muscle > Brain
mL/min (1500) (1200) (840) (750)
mL/100g/min Kidney > Heart > Liver > Brain
(420) (84) (58) (54)
2. A-V O2 Diff Heart > Brain > Sk muscle > Liver > Kidney
(mL/L of blood) (114) (62) (60) (34) (14)
3. O2 Consumption Liver > Sk muscle > Brain > Heart > Kidney
AfraTafreeh.com
(mL/min) (51) (50) (46) (29) (18)
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Glomerular Filtration
This is governed by the same forces (Starling’s forces) as that across capillary.
GFR = Kf [(PGC-PBC) + (pBC - pGC)]
Where Kf = filtration coefficient
PGC
AfraTafreeh.com
= Glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure
PBC = Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure
ΠBC = Bowman’s capsule colloid osmotic pressure
πGC = Glomerular capillary colloid osmotic pressure
(Hydrostatic pressure is a ‘push’ force and Oncotic pressure is a ‘retaining’ or ‘pull’ force)
Organ with the maximum Kf is the kidney.
Organ with maximum Pc is also the kidney.
The net filtration pressure is 15 mms of Hg at the afferent end of the glomerular
capillaries but it falls to zero, i.e., filtration equilibrium is reached- proximal to
the efferent end of the glomerular capillaries. This is because fluid leaves the
plasma and the plasma oncotic pressure rises as blood passes through the
glomerular capillaries.
Filtered load and excretion rate
Filtered load = GFR X Px; where Px is the plasma concentration of substance x
Amount excreted = Ux X V; where Ux is the urinary concentration of x and V is the rate of urine flow
Filtration fraction is the ratio of the GFR to the RPF. Normally, the filtration fraction is 0.16 to 0.20
or 16-20%.
82 | Physiology
Clearance
Definition: Clearance for a substance ‘A’ is defined as that volume of plasma that
is required to contain that much amount of the substance A which is present in one
minute’s urine or the volume of plasma from which a substance is removed by the
kidney in unit time. Its unit is mL/min
Formula
It is given by the formula:
U V
C = P×
×
Where
C = clearance
Ux = concentration of the substance in the urine
V = urine flow
Px = concentration of the substance in the plasma
Uses
• Clearance of Inulin gives GFR (125ml/min)
• Clearance of paramino hippuric acid (PAH) gives renal plasma flow (625 ml/min)
Since the extraction ratio (arterial concentration minus renal venous concentration
AfraTafreeh.com
divided by arterial concentration) of PAH is 0.9 (90%), the value obtained is effective
renal plasma flow (ERPF)
ERPF
The actual RPF =
0.9
Other Points
Clearance is just a mathematical (theoretical) concept e.g. Clearance of glucose is
normally zero because there is no glucose in the urine. It does not mean that no glucose
is filtered!
For any Substance X that is freely filtered at the glomerulus:
How can you say whether a substance has been reabsorbed / secreted?
If: Then:
Filtration and excretion rate are the same X passes through the nephron without reabsorption
or secretion
Significance of clearance
For example, the clearance of urea is 75mL/min, what is the actual meaning of this
number? What significance does this number have for you?
Kidney | 83
A urea clearance of 75mL/min means that 75mL of plasma is completely cleared of urea
in 1 minute by excreting urea in urine.
The following table can be used to determine whether a substance has been
reabsorbed or secreted from its clearance
Clearance of X is less than inulin clearance There is net reabsorption of X
Clearance of X is greater than inulin clearance There is net secretion of X
Clearance of X is equal to inulin clearance X is not reabsorbed or secreted
AfraTafreeh.com
84 | Physiology
Concept 3.3: Renal handling of sodium
Learning objectives
At the end of this segment the student will be able to
• Calculate the filtered load of sodium
• Enumerate the mechanisms of sedum reabsorption in the luminal membrane of cells
in different segments of the nephron
• Understand tubuloglomerular feedback and glomerulotubular balance and their
importance in regulating GFR and sodium excretion
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
ATS Passive
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
Glucose
• Glucose is freely filtered and completely reabsorbed in the PCT.
• Glucose is reabsorbed by secondary active transport on the luminal side and by
facilitated diffusion on the basal membrane.
• In early PCT, reabsorption is by SGLT-2 (sodium- glucose linked transport) on the
luminal membrane and Glut-2 on the basal membrane.
• In late PCT, reabsorption is by SGLT-1 (sodium- glucose linked transport) on the
luminal membrane and Glut-1 on the basal membrane.
• Most of the glucose reabsorption occurs in early PCT itself.
AfraTafreeh.com
• The TmG (tubular maximum for glucose i.e. the maximum rate of absorption of
glucose by the tubule) is 375 mg/min in males and 300mg/min in females.
• Given that the TmG is 375mg/min in males, by calculation, the renal threshold for
glucose in blood would be 300mg/dL.
• However, the actual value of renal Threshold is much less than this; it is 200mg/dL in
arterial and 180mg/dL in venous blood.
• This deviation in the renal threshold (from the calculated predicted value) in called
splay.
• The reason for splay is heterogeneity of nephrons (i.e. not all nephrons have TmG of
375 mg/min); further, not all nephrons are maximally active simultaneously.
88 | Physiology
Concept 3.6: Renal handling of water
Learning objectives:
At the end of this segment the student will be able to
• Enumerate the acquaporins indifferent segments of the nephron
• Enumerate the percentage of water reabsorption in different segments of the nephron
• Understand the change in tonicity along the nephron
• Understand the difference in permeability of the tubular segments to water and NaCl
• Understand the counter- current mechanism and its importance in concentration of
urine
• Enumerate the differences between water and osmotic diuresis
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
For each H+ that is secreted, effectively 1 Na+ and 1 HCO3- are reabsorbed.
(In PCT, H+ is generated by the reaction between H2O and CO2 in the presence of
carbonic anhydrase)
The secreted H+ in PCT does not acidify the urine; it only helps in the reabsorption
low-gradient system in the PCT. i.e. the capacity of H+ secretion is high but
acidification of urine does not take place.
Reabsorption of HCO3–
Urinary buffers
Type of buffer PK Sites
Bicarbonate 6.1 In PCT, it is mostly bicarbonate buffer
Phosphate 6.8 In DCT/CD
Ammonia 9.0 Both PCT & DCT
Phosphate buffer
AfraTafreeh.com
Ammonia buffer
Kidney | 93
Limiting pH of urine = 4.5
Factors affecting acid secretion
• Intracellular PCO2- when PCO2 in high, acid secretion is increased.
• K+ depletion- this increases acid secretion.
Note: Hypokalemia tends to cause alkalosis and vice versa.
• Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors inhibit the action of carbonic anhydrase and acid
secretion is decreased.
• Aldosterone- this increases Na+ reabsorption and increases K+ and H+ secretion.
AfraTafreeh.com
94 | Physiology
Concept 3.8: Renal handling of urea
Learning objectives
At the end of this segment the student will be able to
• Understand urea handling in different segments of the nephron
• Understand the concept of urea cycling and its role in increasing osmolality of the
medullary interstitium
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
• Recirculation of urea absorbed from the medullary collecting duct into the interstitial fluid- urea diffuses
into the thin loop of Henle, and then passes through the distal tubules, and finally passes back into the
collecting duct.
• The recirculation of urea helps to trap urea in the renal medulla and contributes to the hyperosmolarity
of the renal medulla.
• The heavy dark lines, from the thick ascending loop of Henle to the medullary collecting ducts, indicate
that these segments are not very permeable to urea. (Numerical values are in milliosmoles per liter of urea
during antidiuresis, when large amounts of antidiuretic hormone are present. Percentages of the filtered
load of urea that remain in the tubules are indicated in the boxes.)
AfraTafreeh.com
96 | Physiology
Concept 3.9: Renal handling of phosphate
Learning objectives: To appreciate the effect of PTH on phosphate reabsorption
Time Needed
1st reading 01 mins
2 look
nd
05 seconds
AfraTafreeh.com
Kidney | 97
Concept 3.10: Renal handling of calcium
Learning objectives: to recognize the sites and mechanisms of calcium reabsorption
Time Needed
1st reading 03 mins
2 look
nd
01 minute
AfraTafreeh.com
AfraTafreeh.com
Kidney | 99
Important Tables (Active recall)
Cortical nephron Juxtamedullary nephron
AfraTafreeh.com
4 Cardiovascular System
CONCEPTS
 Concept 4.1 Cardiac muscle
 Concept 4.2 Origin and conduction of the cardiac
impulse
 Concept 4.3 ECG
 Concept 4.4 Cardiac cycle
 Concept 4.5 Cardiac output
 Concept 4.6 Myocardial oxygen demand
AfraTafreeh.com
 Concept 4.7 Blood vessels
 Concept 4.8 Hemodynamics
 Concept 4.9 Cardiovascular regulation
 Concept 4.10 Vasomotor centre
 Concept 4.11 Regulation of blood pressure
 Concept 4.12 Cardiovascular reflexes
 Concept 4.13 Sinus arrhythmia
 Concept 4.14 Blood pressure waves
 Concept 4.15 Effect of Valsalva on blood pressure and
heart rate
 Concept 4.16 Cardiovascular response to exercise
102 | Physiology
Concept 4.1 : Cardiac muscle
Learning Objectives: - To understand
• Functional histology of cardiac muscle
• Electric activity in cardiac muscle, including the plateau potential and pacemaker
potential
• Effect of vagal stimulation on pacemaker potential
• Effect of sympathetic stimulation on pacemaker potential
• Concepts of after depolarization or after potentials
• Mechanism of contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle
• Relationship between electrical and mechanical events in cardiac muscle
• Significance of the length- tension relationship in the heart
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
Functional histology
• Cardiac muscle fibers branch and interdigitate.
• Intercalated discs are present at Z-lines; Intercalated discs provide a strong union
between fibers, maintaining cell-to-cell cohesion, so that the pull of one contractile
AfraTafreeh.com
cell can be transmitted along its axis to the next.
• Gap junctions are present at Z-line. Gap junctions are made of proteins k/a connexons.
Gap junction of one cell is in alignment with the gap junction of the neighboring cell,
so that ions, molecules can be easily transferred from one cell to the next. Electrical
coupling between cells is by means of these gap junctions.
• The T-tubule system is at Z lines (In skeletal muscle it is at A-I band function).
Cardiovascular System | 103
AfraTafreeh.com
Relaxation
calcium uptake by SERCA (ii) Increased force of contraction because more calcium
is available for release during the next contraction, and (iii) Decreased duration of
contraction because of rapid reaccumulation of calcium by sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Relationship between electrical and mechanical events
The action potential in ventricular muscle fibers is prolonged one and therefore the
refractory period is also relatively prolonged- it remains relatively refractory until phase
4. This is the reason as to why cardiac muscle cannot be tetanised.
108 | Physiology
•There is a curvilinear
relationship between
CO and EDV
Cardiac output
Stroke volume
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2nd look 15 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
RA – I + LA +
– – RA- Right arm
LA- Left arm
LL- Left leg
II III The three electrode locations form
the points of an equilateral triangle
(Einthoven’s triangle) and the heart
lies in the center of the triangle
+ +
LL
For example, lead I is between LA and RA, with the LA ‘positive’ and RA ‘negative’. The
direction of the lead axis is taken from negative to positive (the arrow indicates the
direction of lead II).
Einthoven’s law: Mean deflection is lead II = Mean deflection in lead I + Mean
deflection in lead III i.e., II = I + III
112 | Physiology
The basic electrical recording principles are:-
1. If the direction of the cardiac impulse is towards the recording electrode, a positive
(upward) deflection is recorded; if it is moving away from the recording electrode, a
negative (downward) deflection is recorded.
2. The height of deflection depends on
a. The strength of the cardiac impulse vector.
b. Orientation of the vector to the lead axis. If it is parallel, it records maximum
deflection; if it is perpendicular, it records minimum deflection.
In the unipolar leads, one electrode that is kept at the point where the potential is to
be measured is called the exploring electrode. The other electrode (called indifferent
electrode) is kept at near zero potential.
• In Augmented unipolar limb leads- two limbs are connected through a very high
electrical resistance (5000 ohm) to the negative terminal –this is the indifferent
electrode, third limb is connected to the positive terminal- this is the exploring
electrode. The augmented leads do not use the “V” electrode as the zero, rather they
are recordings between the one, augmented limb and the other two limbs.
• In unipolar chest leads (V1- V6) - one electrode on anterior surface of heart is
connected to positive terminal of the ECG (exploring/ reference/ positive electrode),
second/ indifferent/ reference electrode to negative terminal. Reference electrode
is connected to RA, LA, LL through high resistance; also called central terminal of
Wilson and is considered to be at zero potential
AfraTafreeh.com
The normal direction of the mean QRS vector is generally between- 300 to +1100.
Normally, the maximum deflection is recorded in lead II because the direction of the
mean QRS vector is most parallel to lead II.
AfraTafreeh.com
I
II
III
If there is a left ventricular hypertrophy, the vector will ‘shift’ in the direction shown
by dotted arrow; in which case, the vector would become most parallel to lead I. So, if
one wants to know the value of vector, the vector can be ‘superimposed’ on the triaxial
system.
I I
III II III II
Value of V = +150 0
Value of V = -30 or +3300
0
114 | Physiology
Causes of Right Axis deviation (Big S in Lead I and a big R in Lead III)
RVH (Mitral Stenosis, Emphysema)
Left posterior fascicular block
Causes of Left Axis deviation (Tall R in Lead I and a big S in Lead III)
LVH (Chronic hypertension, Aortic Incompetence)
• PR interval is measured from the beginning of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS
complex.
• PR interval shortens as heart rate increases from average of 0.18s at the rate of 70
beats/ min to 0.14s at a rate of 130 beats/min.
• J point is at the end of S wave (Zero potential).
Cardiovascular System | 115
ECG in some abnormal conditions:
i) Accelerated A-V conduction:
Wolff- Parkinson White Syndrome
▫ Short P- R interval
▫ P- J interval is normal
▫ Short P - R interval
▫ Normal QRS
▫ P – J interval is decreases
AfraTafreeh.com
AfraTafreeh.com
Effect of hypokalemia:
• Produces hyperpolarization of resting membrane potential in myocardial cells of the
whole heart
• Decreased excitability of the myocardial cells
• ECG changes: Prolongation of PR interval; prolonged QRS
Prominent U waves
Flat T wave or inversion of T wave
Cardiovascular System | 117
AfraTafreeh.com
His Bundle Electrogram (HBE)
This is used to study events in the:
• AV node
• Bundle of His
• Purkinje system
The HBE is recorded with the help of a catheter containing an electrode at its tip
that is passed through a vein to the right side of the heart and manipulated into
position close to the tricuspid valve.
Three or more standard electrographic leads are recorded simultaneously- the
record of the electrical activity obtained with the catheter is known as the His
bundle electrogram (HBE)
There are 3 waves in HBE: A deflection, H spike, V deflection
118 | Physiology
Wave Denotes
A deflection AV nodal activation
H spike Transmission through bundle of His
V deflection Ventricular depolarization
There are 3 intervals described (marked with the help of HBE and standard
(ECG) :
Interval From – to Represents
PA (27 ms or 0.023s) First appearance of atrial Conduction time from SA node to AV node
depolarization to ‘A’ wave in HBE
AH (92 ms or 0.092s) ‘A’ wave to start of ‘H’ AV node conduction time
HV (43 ms or 0.043s) Start of ‘H’ to start of QRS Conduction in bundle of His and branches
AfraTafreeh.com
Cardiovascular System | 119
Concept 4.4 : Cardiac cycle
Learning objectives:
• To enumerate and understand
The mechanical events in the cardiac cycle
• To understand the LV pressure, aortic pressure, atrial pressure and LV volume changes
in different phases of the cardiac cycle as seen in the Wigger’s diagram
• To correlate ECG and heart sounds in the cardiac cycle on the Wigger’s diagram
• To define and illustrate QS2, LVET and PEP on the Wigger’s diagram
• To understand the LV pressure and LV volume changes in the LV pressure- volume
loop
• To understand the arterial pulse and its significance
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
▫ Isovolumetric contraction
Ventricular diastole
▫ Isovolumetric relaxation
AfraTafreeh.com
Waves Due to
a Atrial systole
c Bulging of the closed tricuspid valve into right atrium during isovolumetric ventricular
contraction produces a positive wave in the JVP seen as the c wave
x descent: AfraTafreeh.com
Downward pull of the closed tricuspid valve during rapid ejection phase of ventricular
systole
v Filing of right atrium just before the tricuspid valve opens in diastole
y descent Due to rapid flow of blood from the RA into the RV during the first rapid ventricular filling
phase
PEP
PEP LVET
LVET
QS22
AfraTafreeh.com
!
LV Pressure volume loop
Aortic valve
closes(S2)
3 Aortic valve
opens
ESV 2
SV
Mitral valve Mitral valve
opens closes(S1)
4 1
EDV
Cardiovascular System | 123
Loop A: Normal
SV Loop B: Increased
preload
A B
EDV increases
AfraTafreeh.com
Changes in left ventricular P-V loop by:
Increase in afterload
Example: Patient with systemic hypertension
Loop A: Normal
Left ventricular pressure
Loop B: Increased
afterload
•Increase in ventricular
pressure during systole
•Decrease in SV
A
•Increase in ESV
B
Loop A: Normal
Loop B: Increased
contractility
Left ventricular pressure
•Increase in ventricular
A pressure during systole
•Increase in SV
B •Decrease in ESV
Arterial pulse
Arterial pulse is felt because of the pressure wave set up in the walls of the vessels. The
rate of the pressure wave is
AfraTafreeh.com
i) Aorta 4 m/s
ii) Large arteries 8 m/s
iii) Small arteries 16 m/s
(Note that the rate of blood flow at the root of the aorta is 40cm/s)
• The pulse is felt in the radial artery at the wrist about 0.1 second after the peak of
systolic ejection into the aorta. With age, the arteries get thickened and the pressure
wave moves faster.
• The strength of the pulse is determined by the pulse pressure (the difference between
systolic and diastolic pressure); it bears no relation to the mean arterial pressure.
• The dicrotic notch corresponds with the closure of aortic valve. It can be seen when
the pressure wave is recorded but is not palpable at the wrist.
Postextrasystolic potentiation-
• After a ventricular extrasystole, the succeeding contraction is stronger than the preceding normal
contraction- this is due to increased availability of intracellular calcium- this is k/a postextrasystolic
potentiation.
• It is independent of ventricular filling.
• It can occur in an isolated cardiac muscle.
• This is sometimes used therapeutically- a paired electrical stimuli is given to the heart in such a way that
the second stimulus is delivered shortly after the refractory period of the first- the strength of the second
contraction will be higher because of increased availability of intracellular calcium.
Cardiovascular System | 125
Concept 4.5 : Cardiac output
Learning objectives:
• To define cardiac output and cardiac index
• To enumerate and understand the principles behind different methods of measurement
of cardiac output, including
Measurement of cardiac output on Fick’s principle
Indicator or dye-dilution technique and thermodilution technique
• To understand heterometric and homometric regulation of cardiac output and the
effects of various conditions on cardiac output
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Cardiac output:
• Definition: Amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute
• Value = 5L/ min
• Cardiac output = S.V X H.R
• Cardiac output = MAP/TPR
AfraTafreeh.com
• Cardiac index is cardiac output per m2 body surface area. Normal value = 3 L/m2
Measurement of cardiac output:
(i) Methods based on the Fick’s Principle
The Fick’s principle states that the amount of substance taken up by an organ (or
by the whole body) per unit time is equal to the arterial level of the substance
minus the venous level (A-V difference) times the blood flow.
Amount of substance taken up by organ in unit time
Blood flow =
Arteriole-venous concentration diff of sub
This principle can be used to determine cardiac output by measuring the amount
of O2 consumed in a given period and dividing this value by the A-V difference
across the lungs.
Arterial O2 content is measured in a sample obtained from any convenient artery.
Venous O2 content is measured in a sample obtained from the pulmonary artery
by means of a cardiac catheter.
▫ Pulmonary blood flow/min = right ventricular output, and
(ii) Indicator/ Dye dilution / thermo dilution technique (in which the indicator
used is warm or cold saline)
Known quantity of dye (cardiogreen) or a radioactive isotope “Q” is injected into
through the pulmonary artery; that is, to the extent that the cold saline is diluted
by blood.
This technique has two advantages, (i) saline is harmless, and (ii) cold is dissipated
•There is a curvilinear
relationship between
CO and EDV
Cardiac output
Stroke volume
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Important points on coronary blood flow and oxygen consumption by the heart:
• Heart receives <5% (4.7%) of cardiac output at rest
• Coronary blood flow is 250mL/min at rest- this can increase by 200-300% (500-
750mL/min)
• In terms of per 100g/ min, coronary blood flow- 84mL/100g/min (blood flow in
resting skeletal muscle is 3- 4mL/100g/min; increases to 50 to 80mL/100g/min
during exercise)
AfraTafreeh.com
• Basal oxygen consumption (ref Ganong pg 550 24th edi)- 2mL/100g/min (much
more than the oxygen consumption by resting skeletal muscle, which is 0.2mL/100g/
min)
• Oxygen consumption by a beating heart at rest- 9mL/100g/min
• At rest heart extracts 70-80% of the oxygen from each unit of blood delivered to it
(“heart is the organ with maximum oxygen extraction at rest”). So whenever
there is an increase in oxygen demand coronary blood flow will also show an increase.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
Vessels
Type of vessel Features
Wind Kessel vessels E.g. aorta, major arteries; have a lot of elastic tissue; show elastic
recoil (wind kessel effect), when stretched
Resistance vessels E.g. arterioles; have some elastic tissue. Have a lot of smooth muscle (
have the maximum wall thickness-to-lumen ratio)
Precapillary sphincters No innervation , respond to local metabolitesQ
Exchange vessels
AfraTafreeh.com
Capillaries; No innervation; Controlled by precapillary sphincters
Capacitance vessels (Veins) Have some innervation (Vena cava have minimum thickness-to-
lumen ratio)
Shunt vessels Form arterio- venous anastomoses. They have thick muscular wall;
very richly innervated. E.g. fingertips, earlobes etc.
Capillaries:-
There are 3 types
(a) Continuous e.g. brain, skin
(b) Fenestrated e.g. GITQ, glomeruli of kidney, endocrine glands, circum ventricular
organs,
(c) Discontinuous (Sinusoids) e.g. liver, bone marrow
The least permeable capillaries are those of the brain while the most permeable
AfraTafreeh.com
Critical closing pressureQ
• It is the pressure below which flow completely stops in thin walled vessels; the value
of this pressure is not zero but above zero (about 20 mms of Hg- this is because
vessels are surrounded by tissues that exert a small but definite pressure on them,
and when the intraluminal pressure falls below the tissue pressure, they collapse).
• The critical closing pressure has different origins:
Collateral inflow to the arteriolar meshwork.
In certain situations due to Rouleaux formation by red blood cells in the blood
vessels.
Cardiovascular System | 133
External tissue pressure compressing the blood vessels.
High vascular smooth muscle tone with closure of small arteries (as sen in terminal
arterioles).
• Sympathetic stimulation produces an increase in vasomotor tone and a vasoconstriction-
this increases the critical closing pressure to 60 mms of Hg, shifts the curve to the
right and decreases the slope.
• Inhibition of the sympathetic system decreases the critical closing pressure to less
than 20 mms of Hg, shifts the curve to the left and increases the slope.
Vascular distensibility
• This is the fractional increase in volume for each mm of Hg rise in pressure.
Increase in volume
• Vascular distensibility =
Increase in pressure × original volume
• Veins on an average are 8 times more distensible than arteries.
Vascular compliance/ capacitance
Increase in volume
• Vascular compliance =
Increase in pressure
• Compliance is distensibility × volume
• Compliance of a vein is 24 times that of a corresponding artery because it is 8 times
AfraTafreeh.com
as distensible and it has a volume about 3 times as great (8 × 3 = 24)
• Sympathetic stimulation decreases vascular complianceQ.
• Control of vascular compliance by sympathetics is especially valuable in hemorrhage
when an increase in vascular tone cause shift of blood from the veins to the heart,
resulting in increased heart pumping.
• Compliance is lower in veins of the lower limbs as compared those at or above the
level of the heart. Veins in the lower limbs are also thicker than those in the brain or
the upper limbs. The compliance of the veins, like that of arteries decreases with age,
and the vascular thickening that occurs is accompanied by a reduction in elastin and
an increase in collagen content.
134 | Physiology
Concept 4.8 : Hemodynamics
Learning Objectives: T o understand the different principles of biophysics for flow of
blood, such as
• Relationship between flow, pressure and resistance (based on Ohm’s law)
• Relationship of velocity of flow and total cross sectional area
• Hagen- Poiseuille’s law
• Laminar and turbulent flow (use of Reynold’s number to determine tendency for
turbulence)
• Shear stress
• La place’s law
• Vascular resistance in series and in parallel
• Distribution of blood in different parts of the circulation
• Blood viscosity and the factors determining it
• Newtonian and non- Newtonian fluids
While applying the biophysical principles, one must bear in mind that vessels are not
rigid tubes and that blood is not a perfect fluid. Thus there can be differences between
in vivo and in vitro conditions.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd AfraTafreeh.com
15 mins
Silent Noisy
Parabolic velocity profile – flow is maximum in the center of the flow No such gradient in flow rate from
and goes on decreasing towards the wall center of the flow towards the vessel
wall exists
Consequently smaller the radius of a blood vessel, the lower the tension in the wall
Amputation of a limb or surgical removal of a kidney removes a parallel circuit and reduces the total vascular
AfraTafreeh.com
resistance and total blood flow (i.e., cardiac output) while increasing the total peripheral vascular resistance.Q
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Autoregulation:
• Autoregulation is the ability of an organ to regulate its blood flow (on its own,
independent of nervous/ systemic influences) with changes in perfusion pressure
(within a range).
• Many organs show auto regulation e.g. brain, kidney, skeletal muscle, liver, heart,
etc.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Skin does not show autoregulation.
• Theories of auto regulation
(i) Myogenic: This depends upon the inherent property of the smooth muscle to
contract, when stretched. More the perfusion pressure, the more it contracts to
decrease the caliber of the vessel and hence to decrease the blood flow
(ii) Metabolic: - Less the perfusion pressure, more is the accumulation of local
metabolites which can dilate the vessel and thus increase blood flow. Some of
the vasodilator metabolites are ↓O2, ↑CO2, ↓pH, ↑ Osmolality, ↑temperature, K+,
Adenosine (plays a vasodilator role in cardiac muscle but not in skeletal muscle),
Lactate etc.
(iii) Tissue pressure theory – This is applicable in encapsulated organs e.g. kidney
(Note: T
he local effect of hypoxia is vasodilatation in all the blood vessels
except pulmonary vessels where they cause vasoconstriction).
Systolic B.P ↑ ↑
Diastolic B.P. ↑ ↓
Triple response is a three- part response, consisting of red reaction, wheal and flare, which occur when the
skin is stroked firmly with a pointed instrument.
• Red reaction
▫ Refers to the reddening which appears at the site of injury in about 10 seconds.
▫ Since it is not neurally mediated, local anesthetics do not prevent the red reaction.
• Flare
▫ It is a diffusely spreading and irregularly outlined redness of the skin surrounding the red line
▫ It occurs due to antidromic conduction of impulses in cutaneous nerves to the blood vessels supplying
the area.
▫ Neurotransmitters responsible for flare are substance P and CGRP.
▫ Flare is absent in locally anesthetized skin and in denervated skin, but it is present immedilately after
nerve block or section ABOVE the site of injury, indicating it is a local neural response.
• Wheal
▫ Refers to the swelling or localized edema that develops within the area of flare.
▫ It occurs due to increased capillary permeability with consequent extravasation of fluid produced by
substance P.
AfraTafreeh.com
Neural regulation: T
he main cardiovascular ‘center’- the vasomotor center is in the
medulla.
142 | Physiology
Concept 4.10 : Vasomotor center
Learning Objectives: To understand and enumerate
• Components of the vasomotor center and their location
• Factors affecting the activity of the VMC
• Excitatory inputs into the VMC
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
lower pons
• Vasoconstrictor area or “pressor area”
In anterolateral portion of upper medulla (neurons in the RVLM project directly to
AfraTafreeh.com
• Cardioinhibitory area
Medial portion of the vasomotor center→ dorsal motor nucleus of vagus→ sends
Time Needed
1st reading 20 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Diastolic blood pressure
It is the minimum pressure recorded during diastole.
The two determinants of DBP are
• Elastic recoil of aorta and large arteries during diastole
• Total peripheral resistance
Pulse pressure
• Arterial pulse pressure is systolic pressure minus diastolic pressure. It is principally a
function of stroke volume, which determines a change in arterial blood volume during
ventricular systole, and arterial compliance.
• The two determinants of pulse pressure are: (i) Stroke volume, and (ii) Arterial
compliance.
• Arterial pulse pressure gives valuable clues about a person’s stroke volume, provided
the arterial compliance is essentially normal. Patients with severe CCF or who have
suffered a severe hemorrhage are likely to have a very small arterial pulse pressure
because their stroke volumes are abnormally small. Conversely, individuals with large
stroke volumes as in aortic regurgitation, are likely to have increased arterial pulse
pressure. Similarly, well- trained atheletes at rest have large stroke volumes because
their resting heart rates are usually low→ a prolonged ventricular filling time→ large
stroke volume→ large pulse pressure
• Arterial compliance also affects pulse pressure. When cardiac output and TPR are
constant, a decrease in arterial compliance results in an increase in pulse
pressure (seen in the elderly where atherosclerosis causes stiffening of blood vessels,
decreases arterial compliance and causes an increase in pulse pressure). Diminished
arterial compliance imposes a greater workload on the left ventricle (i.e., increased
afterload), even if stroke volume, TPR and MAP are equal in two individuals.
144 | Physiology
• If the heart rate and stroke volume are constant, an increase in TPR will increase
MAP. When arterial compliance is constant, an increase in TPR leads to a proportional
increase in systolic and diastolic pressure such that pulse pressure is unchanged.
However, arterial compliance is not linear. As MAP increases and the artery is stressed,
compliance decreases. Because of the decrease in arterial compliance with increased
arterial pressure, pulse pressure will increase when arterial pressure is elevated.
Baroreceptors reflex:
• One of the important inputs to the VMC is the input from the baroreceptors.
• Baroreceptors are stretch (mechano) receptors.
• The high pressure baroreceptors are present in the carotid sinus and aortic arch (in
the adventitia of the vessels).
• The threshold for activation of baroreceptors is a MAP of 50 mm Hg.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Maximum activation is at a MAP of 200 mm Hg.
• At a normal MAP of 100 mm Hg, baroreceptor activation occurs during both systole
and diastoleQ (burst of action potentials during systole and few during diastole).
• At lower mean pressure, activity occurs only during systole whereas at MAP of 200
mm Hg activity occurs throughout the cardiac cycle.
Schematic depiction of baroreceptor (negative) feedback regulation of BP
Nucleus Ambiguus
(parasymapthe c)
!
Cardiovascular System | 145
• Bilateral section of the nerves from the carotid sinus (carotid sinus nerve or Hering’s
nerve) and aortic arch receptors (and also bilateral lesions of the NTS) produces
neurogenic hypertension.
Note: Increase in BP→ Stimulates baroreceptors→ increase firing rate→ inhibits tonic
discharge of sympathetic nerves and excites vagal innervations of the heart→ produce
vasodilation, venodilation, decrease in BP, bradycardia, decrease in cardiac output
• Therefore,
Stimulation of baroreceptors→ decreases BP
Chemoreceptor reflex:
Hypoxia
• Therefore, AfraTafreeh.com
Stimulation of chemoreceptors→ increases BP
N.B. Increase in blood pressure can cause a reflex decrease in heart rate through the
baroreceptor mechanism
Effect of hyperpnoea
Causes increase in catecholamine secretion from adrenal medulla
[Note that the effect of hypoxia on heart rate is an increase (because of hyperpnoea)
and a reflex decrease because of stimulation of VMC. Therefore, its effect on heart rate
is variable]
AfraTafreeh.com
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
Mary’s law
• Mary’s law states that the heart rate is inverse to the blood pressure.
• Physiological basis of the Mary’s law is the baroreceptor response.
• The first change which occurs in response to increase or decrease in bp in the
baroreceptor reflex is a decrease or increase in heart rate respectively, which is called
the Mary’s law.
Bainbridge reflex:
• Sudden increase in blood volume by infusion of blood or saline causes increase in
AfraTafreeh.com
heart rate (if the initial heart rate is low).
• Receptors involved: Atrial stretch receptors
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
▫ The waves result from several different effects, such as spillover of impulses
AfraTafreeh.com
from respiratory center to the vasomotor center with each respiratory cycle.
▫ With inspiration, the pressure in the thoracic cavity becomes more negative
than usual causing the blood vessels to expand- this reduces the quantity of
blood returning to the left side of heart and thereby momentarily decreases
cardiac output and arterial pressure.
▫ The pressure changes in the thoracic vessels during respiration can excite
▫ The Mayer waves are slow, regular oscillations in arterial pressure that occur at
which raises the B.P. and improves the blood flow to the receptor organs- this
eliminates the stimulus to the chemoreceptors, so that the pressure falls and a
new cycle is initiated
150 | Physiology
AfraTafreeh.com
Cardiovascular System | 151
Concept 4.15 : Effect of Valsalva on blood pressure and heart rate
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Pleural pressure changes during a Valsalva
• Changes in blood pressure and heart rate during and after a valsalva
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Cardiovascular System | 153
Concept 4.16 : Cardiovascular response to exercise
Learning Objectives: T
o understand and enumerate cardiovascular responses to
isotonic and isometric exercise
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
Heart rate ↑ ↑
Systolic BP ↑ ↑
Cardiac output ↑ ↓Q
*In isotonic exercise, release of local metabolites will cause a vasodilation in the exercising muscles which in turn decreases
vascular resistance, increases blood flow and therefore, venous return and cardiac output.
**In isometric exercise increase in tension in the muscles compresses the blood vessels in the exercising muscles. This in
turn increases the vascular resistance, decreases flow of blood, and therefore, supply of oxygen and nutrients to the muscles.
Decrease in blood flow to the muscles will, therefore, also cause a decrease in venous return.
154 | Physiology
Worksheet
• MCQ OF “CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM” FROM DQB
AfraTafreeh.com
Cardiovascular System | 155
Important Tables (Active recall)
Definition and duration of different interval on ECG
Normal duration (s)
Intervals Average Range Events in the heart during
interval
AfraTafreeh.com
Waves Due to
156 | Physiology
Resistance vessels
Precapillary sphincters
Exchange vessels
Shunt vessels
AfraTafreeh.com
Isotonic exercise Isometric exercise
Heart rate
Systolic BP
Diastolic BP
Pulse Pressure
Venous return
Cardiac output
5 Respiratory Physiology
CONCEPTS
 Concept 5.1 Functional anatomy
 Concept 5.2 Gas laws
 Concept 5.3 Mechanics of ventilation
 Concept 5.4 Compliance
 Concept 5.5 Surface tension and surfactant
 Concept 5.6 Work of breathing
 Concept 5.7 Hysteresis loop
 Concept 5.8 Ventilation-perfusion gradient in the erect
posture
 Concept 5.9
AfraTafreeh.com
Dead space and its measurement
 Concept 5.10 Diffusing capacity of lungs
 Concept 5.11 Spirometery
 Concept 5.12 Flow-volume loops
 Concept 5.13 Gas transport
 Concept 5.14 Oxygen- hemoglobin dissociation curve
 Concept 5.15 Carbon dioxide transport
 Concept 5.16 Regulation of respiration
 Concept 5.17 CO2 response curves
 Concept 5.18 Respiratory reflexes
 Concept 5.19 Types of hypoxia
 Concept 5.20 Acclimatization to high altitude
 Concept 5.21 Important formulae and calculations in
Respiratory system
158 | Physiology
Concept 5.1: Functional anatomy
Learning Objectives: To enunciate
• Weibel’s classification of airways
• Different types of cells in the lungs
• Agents causing bronchoconstriction and bronchodilatation
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
surface area.
Cells are joined by tight junctions.
These tight junctions prevent the escape of large molecules, such as albumin,
into the alveoli (although they permit the free passage of macrophages and
polymorphs).
• Type II (also called granular pneumocytes):
They secrete surfactant.
They form 60% of the total number of cells but only 5% of the alveolar surface
AfraTafreeh.com
160 | Physiology
Concept 5.2: Gas Laws
Learning Objectives: To understand and define the different gas laws and their
application in respiratory physiology, such as
• Dalton’s law of partial pressures
• Boyle’s law
• Charles’ law
• Henry’s law
• Graham’s law
• Fick’s law of diffusion
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 02 mins
Gas Laws
Dalton’s law of partial pressure:
AfraTafreeh.com
• The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is equal to the total pressure times
its percentage. Partial pressure = Total pressure X fractional gas concentration.
• For example, dry air has 20.93% of O2. Its partial pressure (PO2) at sea level (where
the atmospheric pressure or the total pressure of gases in the atmosphere is 101 kPa
or 760 mms of Hg), is 20.93/100 X 760 = 159 mm Hg or 21 kPa.
• When air is inhaled into the upper airways, it is warmed and moistened, and the water
vapor pressure is then 47 mm Hg, so that the total dry gas pressure is only 760 – 47
= 713 mm Hg. The PO2 of inspired air is therefore 20.93/100 X 713 = 149 mm Hg.
• A liquid exposed to a gas until equilibration takes place has the same partial pressure
as the gas.
Boyle’s Law:
• Pressure (P) of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume (V) (i.e., P
α 1/ V), if T is constant.
Charles’ lawQ:
• Volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature i.e., V α T (if P is
constant).
• From the above, it can be derived that P α T
Henry’s law:
• The partial pressure of a dissolved gas is equal to its partial pressure above the
solution.
Respiratory Physiology | 161
Graham’s law:
• The rate of diffusion or effusion (i.e., diffusion that takes place through an orifice and
from high to low pressure) is inversely proportional to the square root of density (or
mass) when temperature and pressure are constant.
AfraTafreeh.com
162 | Physiology
Concept 5.3: Mechanics of ventilation
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the different pressure responsible for ventilation, such as
Intrapleural
Intrapulmonary
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Pressure changes during respiration
Respiratory Physiology | 163
(i) Intrapleural pressure : At the beginning of quiet inspiration, it is – 2.5 mm of Hg
with respect to atmosphere i.e. 2.5 mmHg less than atmospheric pressure of 760
mmHg; at the end of inspiration, it becomes – 6.0 mmHg w.r.t. atmosphere.
(ii) Intra alveolar pressure: At the peak of inspiration, it is – 1 mmHg; at the peak of
expiration, it is +1 mmHg.
At the beginning and at the end of both inspiration and expiration (when there is
no airflow), the intralveolar pressure is zero i.e. same as atmosphere pressure.
(iii) Transpulmonary or the transmural pressure or the distending pressure is the
difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure.
Total Ventilation
• Total ventilation = tidal volume × respiratory rate
Alveolar ventilation
• Alveolar ventilation is the amount of fresh (non-dead space) gas entering the alveoli
per minute i.e., (tidal volume- dead space volume) × respiratory rate. It can be
determined from the alveolar ventilation equation, that is, the CO2 output divided by
the fractional concentration of CO2 in the expired gas.
• The concentration of CO2 (and therefore its partial pressure) in alveolar gas
and arterial blood is inversely related to the alveolar ventilation.
Muscles involved in quiet respiration
• Inspiration : Diaphragm is the main muscle; also external intercostal muscle
AfraTafreeh.com
• Expiration : No expiratory muscle (passive)
Muscles involved in forceful respiration
• Inspiration : Scalene, sternocleidomastoid
• Expiration : Internal intercostal muscles, Anterior abdominal muscle
164 | Physiology
Concept 5.4: Compliance
Learning Objectives:
• To define compliance
• To understand the relaxation- pressure curve and to understand the
significance of relaxation volume, minimum lung volume and residual volume
from the relaxation- pressure curve
• To enunciate the types of compliance measurements- static and dynamic
compliance
• To define specific compliance
• To enumerate the factors affecting compliance and the conditions causing
decrease or increase in lung compliance
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Compliance
This is defined as the change in volume for a unit change in pressure
∆V
Compliance =
∆P
AfraTafreeh.com
• Lung compliance is greater than that of lungs plus chest wall, being 0.2 liters
per cm of H2OQ. compliance of lungs and chest wall is 0.1L/cm H2O.
Lung- thorax relaxation pressure curve
Respiratory Physiology | 165
• A plot of the change in volume with a change in pressure is the volume-pressure
curve or the relaxation-pressure curve.
• When the relaxation – pressure curve is plotted for the total respiratory system (i.e.
taking into account the interaction between the recoil of the lungs and recoil of the
chest) the volume of the gas in lungs when the pressure is zero is called the relaxation
volume.
• The relaxation volume equals the functional residual capacity.
Types of compliance measurements
(i) Static compliance: This is the measurement made without taking into account the
effect of the different phases of respiration.
(ii) Dynamic compliance: Compliance measurement during the difference phases of
respiration.
Specific compliance
• Specific compliance = Compliance / FRC
• In emphysema there is an increase in lung compliance but decrease in specific
compliance.
Factors affecting compliance
(i) Lung volume: Smaller the lungs, smaller is the compliance. Specific compliance
measurement removes the effect the effect of lung size on compliance.
(ii) For a given lung size, the compliance becomes less at extremes of lung volume.
AfraTafreeh.com
(iii) Compliance is more during deflation than during inflation
(iv) If surface tension is more, compliance is less
Conditions in which compliance is affected
• Compliance decreased : Pulmonary congestion, pulmonary fibrosis etc.
• Compliance increased : Emphysema, old age
Elastance is the reciprocal of compliance or 1/compliance or ∆ P/∆ V
166 | Physiology
Concept 5.5: Surface tension and surfactant
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the concept of surface tension and its significance in the lungs
• To understand the role of surfactant in lowering surface tension
• To enumerate functions of surfactant
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Surfactant
• The alveolar fluid also has a surface-tension lowering agent called surfactant.
• This is secreted by type II (granular pneumocytes) alveolar epithelial cells.
• It is a mixture of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (phosphatidyl choline is also called
lecithin) other lipids, protein and carbohydrates.
AfraTafreeh.com
• The maximum percentage in the surfactant is that of dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline.
Functions of surfactant
(i) Prevents alveolar collapse; maintains alveolar stability
(ii) Prevents pulmonary edema
The surface – tension lowering ability of surfactant depends upon its concentration
per unit area. When the lung volume is less, the alveoli are smaller and therefore the
concentration E.g. surfactant per unit area is more. Consequently, the surface tension is
less at lower lung volumes.
Respiratory Physiology | 167
Concept 5.6: Work of breathing
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the types of work done in quiet breathing
• To understand and enumerate the conditions which increase work of breathing
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Work of breathing
This is required to do
(i) Elastic work (66% or 2/3rds)
a. Tissue elasticity (1/3rd or 22% of the total work done)
b. Surface tension elasticity (2/3rd or 44% of the total work done)
(ii) Non-elastic work (35%)
c. Viscous resistance (7%)
d. Airway resistance (28%)
f The work of breathing can be calculated from the relaxation – pressure curve.
f Work done in quiet breathing is 0.3 to 0.8kgm/min.
respiratory system.
AfraTafreeh.com
f The work of breathing for the lung alone is more than that for the total
f Since the airway resistance becomes more during turbulent flow, the work of
breathing is more during turbulent flow than during laminar flow.
f The work of breathing is increased in conditions such as emphysema, asthma,
congestive heart failure
168 | Physiology
Concept 5.7: Hysteresis loop
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the reason behind hysteresis
• To understand the differences in
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Hysteresis Loop
• An important factor affecting the compliance of the lungs is the surface tension of the
thin film of fluid lining the alveoli.
• More the surfactant, less is the surface tension, more will be the compliance.
• During expiration, as the alveolar size reduces, concentration of surfactant molecules
per unit area increases- this decreases surface tension and increases compliance;
compliance is, therefore, more in expiration than inspiration.
• For a saline-filled lung, the distending pressure is the same during inspiration and
expiration.
• The difference between saline and air curves is much smaller when lung volumes are
small.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Differences become obvious in the curves generated during inspiration and expiration-
this difference is called hysteresis and is notably not present in a saline- filled lung.
• The alveolar environment, and specifically the surfactant that helps reduce surface
tension and keep the alveoli from collapsing, contribute to hysteresis.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Ventilation – perfusion gradients from base to apex of the lung (in the
upright position)
(i) The intrapleural pressure decreases from base to the apex; intrapleural pressure is
higher at base and less at apex.
(ii) Ventilation per unit lung volume decreases from base to the apex; ventilation is
higher at base and less at apex.
(iii) Perfusion decreases from base to the apex; perfusion or blood flow is higher at
base and less at apex.
(iv) The ventilation – perfusion ratio increases from base to apex; V/Q ratio is less at
base (0.63) and higher at apex (3.3).
AfraTafreeh.com
170 | Physiology
Concept 5.9: Dead space
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the two types of dead space- anatomic and physiologic, and their
measurement
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Dead space
(i) Anatomical dead space is the volume of the conducting airways, which is = the
respiratory system volume up to alveoli.
Normal value is about 150mL.
It can be measured from the nitrogen concentration in the expired air following a
single inspiration of 100% oxygen.
It increases with large inspirations because of traction or pull exerted on the
bronchi by the surrounding lung parenchyma.
The anatomic dead space also depends on the size and posture of the subject.
(ii) Physiologic dead space (or total dead space) is the volume of gas that does not
eliminate CO2.
Physiologic dead space = Anatomic dead space + wasted ventilation (due to over
AfraTafreeh.com
ventilated or under-perfused alveoli).
In other words, physiologic dead space is the volume of gas not equilibrating with
blood.
It is measured by the Bohr’s method using arterial and expired CO2.
Normally, physiologic dead space = anatomic dead space = 150 mL, but the
physiologic dead space is increased in many lung diseases.
Measurement of anatomic dead space by the single breath nitrogen technique
• Also k/a Fowler’s technique.
Respiratory Physiology | 171
• It can also measure
Closing volume (the lung volume above the residual volume of which the airways
in the lower, dependent parts of the lung begin to close off because of lesser
transpulmonary pressure in these areas).
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Volume (L)
Men Women
{ }Inspiratory capacity
IRV 3.3 1.9
Vital capacity TV 0.5 0.5
ERV
RV
1.0
1.2
0.7
1.1
}Functional residual capacity
Total lung capacity 6.0 4.2
Respiratory minute volume (rest): 6L/min Timed vital capacity: 83% of total in 1s; 97%
Alveolar veritilation (rest): 4.2 L/min in 3 s works of quite vreathing: 0.5 kg-m/min
Maximum voluntary ventilation (BTPS): Maximal work of vreathing: 10kg-m/breath
125-170 L/min
174 | Physiology
Techniques for measurement of FRC
• Helium dilution method
AfraTafreeh.com
Respiratory Physiology | 175
• Nitrogen washout method
AfraTafreeh.com
• Whole body plethysmography
176 | Physiology
• The plethysmograph is a large airtight box, like a telephone booth, in which the
subject sits.
• At the end of a normal expiration, a shutter closes the mouth piece and the subject is
asked to make respiratory efforts.
• As the subject tries to inhale, he expands his lungs, lung volume increases and airway
pressure decreases whereas the volume of the air in the room/ box decreases and
the pressure increases.
• Boyle’s law states that pressure X volume is constant (at constant temperature).
• Therefore, if the pressure in the box before and after the inspiratory effort are P1
and P2, respectively and V1 is the preinspiratory box volume, and ∆V is the change in
volume of the box (or lung), it can be written
P1V1 = P2 (V1 - ∆V)
• Thus ∆V or change in the volume of lung can be obtained.
• Next, Boyle’s law is applied to the gas in the lung.
P3V2 = P4 (V2 + ∆V)
• Where, P3 and P4 are the mouth pressures before and after the inspiratory effort, and
V2 is the FRC. Thus, FRC can be obtained.
Advantage of whole body plethysmography:
• The whole body plethysmography measures the total volume of gas in the lung,
including any that is trapped behind closed airways and that does not communicate
with the mouth. On the other hand, helium dilution technique cannot measure the
AfraTafreeh.com
trapped air and can only measure the communicating gas or ventilated lung volume.
• In young normal subjects, these volumes are almost the same, but in patients with
lung disease, the ventilated volume may be considerably less than the total volume
because of air trapped behind obstructed airways.
Respiratory Physiology | 177
Concept 5.12: Flow-volume loops
Learning Objectives:
• To study the flow volume loops in different conditions
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
AfraTafreeh.com
Features of flow- volume loops in restrictive lung disease due to chest wall
deformities (kyphosis, scoliosis):
• Total lung capacity- decreased
• Residual volume- increased
• Vital capacity- decreased
• FEV1/ FVC- normal to increased
• Flow rates (PEFR, MEFR) are more or less preserved
• CURVE LIES WITHIN NORMAL CURVE
Features of flow- volume loop in fixed, large, central airway obstruction:
• Total lung capacity- decreased
• Residual volume- increased
• Vital capacity- decreased
Respiratory Physiology | 179
• Both the inspiratory and expiratory limbs are truncated- the shape is quite characteristic
with more or less equal restriction of both inspiratory and expiratory flow rates
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
Partial pressuresAfraTafreeh.com
PIO2 means partial pressure of O2 in inspired air
of O & CO in inspired air,
2
Partial pressure of O2 / CO2 at different sites2(in mmHg)
alveolar
Partial pressure of O / CO inair
2
& blood
inspired
2
air, alveolar air & blood:
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Bohr effect
• Decrease in O2 affinity of Hb (and a shift of the OHDC to the right) with a decrease in
pH is called the Bohr’s effect.
• It is closely related to the fact that deoxyhemoglobin bunds H+ more actively than
does oxyhemoglobin.
• pH of the blood falls as its CO2 content increases, so that when the Pco2 rises, the
curve shifts to the right and P50 rises.
• Most of the unsaturation of Hb that occurs in the tissues is secondary to the decline
in Po2, but an extra 1-2% unsaturation is due to the rise in Pco2 and consequent shift
of the dissociation curve to the right.
184 | Physiology
Concept 5.15: CO2 transport
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the different mechanisms of CO2 transport
• To understand the concept of Haldane effect
• To understand chloride shift (also k/a hamburger effect) in venous RBC
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
CO2 + H2O H2 CO3 H+ + HCO3-. H+ gets buffered by Hb; 70% the HCO3-
enters plasma and Cl- enters RBC (chloride shift)
(Since carbonic anhydrase is present in RBCs, the process of hydration is rapid.)
Haldane effect
• Reduced hemoglobin is less acid (that is, a better proton acceptor) than oxyhemoglobin.
• Deoxyhemoglobin in the peripheral tissues binds more H+ than oxyhemoglobin and
forms carbamino compounds more readily whereas binding of O2 to hemoglobin in the
pulmonary capillaries reduces its affinity for CO2.
• The Haldane effect refers to the increased capacity of deoxygenated hemoglobin to
bind and carry CO2.
• Consequently, venous blood carries more CO2 than arterial blood.
• Unloading of O2 in the peripheral tissues facilitates uptake of CO2, whereas oxygenation
in the lungs facilitates CO2 release.
Respiratory Physiology | 185
Chloride shift or Hamburger effect
• It is clear from the above that for each CO2 molecule that goes into RBC, there is
either one HCO3- or one Cl- inside the RBC; the chloride content of the venous blood
RBC is more than that of arterial blood RBC.
• To maintain electrical neutrality, Cl- ions move from the plasma into the RBCs- this is
k/a chloride shift.
• The venous RBC has a higher osmolal content, and consequently, water enters the
cell, thus increasing its volume.
• For this reason, plus the fact that a small amount of fluid from the capillaries enters
into the interstitial spaces and returns to the circulation via the lymphatics, the
hematocrit of venous blood is higher 3% greater than arterial blood.
• Chloride shift occurs rapidly and is complete within 1 second.
AfraTafreeh.com
186 | Physiology
Concept 5.16: Regulation of respiration
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the neural control of respiration and the role of medulla, pons and
higher centers in regulating respiration
• To understand the role of vagus in controlling the depth of inspiration
• To understand the chemical control of respiration and the role of peripheral and
central chemoreceptors in regulating respiration
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
Increase in PCO2
Increase in H+
Increase in K+
Cyanide
• Each carotid and aortic body contains 2 types of cells, type I and type II cells.
• The type I (glomus cells) responds to hypoxia; they have O2 – sensitive K+ channels.
AfraTafreeh.com
• The carotid body has a very high blood flow (2000mL/100g/min compared with brain
which has a blood flow of 54mL/100g/min). Because of this, if does not respond to
anemic hypoxia (since the dissolved oxygen meets the needs).
Central chemoreceptors
• Central chemoreceptors are present on the surface of medulla.
• Most potent stimulus for the central chemoreceptors is H+.
• They are sensitive to the H+ in the CSF and the brain interstitial fluid.
• Since H+ cannot cross the blood brain barrier, the most potent stimulus for central
chemoreceptors in the blood is CO2.
• CO2 can influence these central chemoreceptors only indirectly by crossing the blood
brain barrier and getting converted into H+.
• CO2 is able to act on both central (60-70% of the effect of CO2) as well as on peripheral
(30-40% of the effect of CO2) chemoreceptors.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
CO2 response curves and the effect of hypoxia on CO2 response curves
• Increase in PCO2 stimulates the peripheral and central chemoreceptors increasing the
rate and depth of ventilation, resulting in increase in total and alveolar ventilation.
• The relationship of PCO2 and ventilation is linear.
• Effect of hypoxia on CO2 response curves exhibits a complex relationship, the effect
of CO2 excess and O2 lack is more than additive.
• If one were to plot a curve between CO2 and ventilation at different fixed O2 levels,
one would get a fan of curves.
• The slope of the curves (between CO2 and ventilation) increases significantly with
AfraTafreeh.com
decreased O2 levels (however, the alveolar PCO2 level at which the curves intersect is
unaffected).
pO2 = 80
pO2 = 90
pO2 = 100
Ventilation
(L/min)
0 40 80
PAco2 (mmHg)
Respiratory Physiology | 189
• This increase in slope at lower PO2 levels indicates at an increase in sensitivity of the
chemoreceptors to PCO2 in the presence of hypoxia. In other words, hypoxia makes an
individual more sensitive to an increase in arterial PCO2.
• Since this point of intersection is below the normal value of PACO2 of 40 mmHg, it
shows that there is normally a slight but definite CO2 drive of the respiratory center.
Effect of H+ on CO2 response curves
The stimulatory effects of H+ and CO2 on ventilation is additive.
In metabolic acidosis, the CO2 response curves are similar to those in the above figure
except that they are shifted to the left.
In other words, the same amount of respiratory stimulation is produced by lower arterial
PCO2 levels.
CO2 response curve shift 0.8 mm Hg to the left for each nanomole increase in arterial H+.
AfraTafreeh.com
190 | Physiology
Concept 5.18: Respiratory reflexes
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the important respiratory reflexes and their significance- Hering- Breur
inflation and deflation reflexes, J-receptor reflex, Head’s paradoxical reflex
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Types of Hypoxia
Hypoxic Anemic Stagnant Histotoxic
Underlying cause PaO2 is ↓ed Amount of O2 carrying No utilization of O2
available Hb capacity is normal at tissue level
decreases but O2 delivery is
decreased
Examples High altitude, Anemia, CO Heart failure Cyanide poisoning
h y p o v e n t i l a t i o n poisoning
due to any cause
PaO2(dissolved O2) ↓ed Normal Normal Normal
O2 combined with ↓ed
Hb (SO2)
AfraTafreeh.com
↓ed Normal Normal
C.O. Poisoning
• Affinity of Hb for CO is 210 times that for O2.
• Binding of CO with Hb reduces SO2 and therefore, the O2 carrying capacity of the
blood.
• CO poisoning produces anemic hypoxia.
• C.O. poisoning is especially dangerous because
1) Less Hb is available for carrying O2, resulting in a decrease in SO2.
2) Since the dissolved O2 is normal there is no peripheral chemoreceptor stimulation.
3) There is a shift of the O2 – Hb dissociation curve to the left which increases the
affinity of Hb and O2.
192 | Physiology
Concept 5.20: Acclimatization to high altitude
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the changes in high altitude
• To understand the processes involved in acclimatization to high altitude
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
the brain causes a fall in CSF pH that increases the response to hypoxia.
(ii) Hypoxia causes ↑ in erythropoietin, which in turn increases the red cell mass and
therefore, the oxygen carrying capacity.
(iii) At tissue level, there is increase in mitochondria, cytochrome oxidase myoglobin.
(iv) O-HDC (Oxygen – Hb dissociation curve)
▫ Alkalosis tends to shift the O-HDC to the left, but a concomitant increase in red
▫ However, the value of the increase in P50is limited because when the arterial
AfraTafreeh.com
5. Physiological or total dead space = Anatomic dead space + wasted ventilation
6. Normally, wasted ventilation = zero, so physiologic dead space = anatomic dead
space
7. When V/Q ratio >1, it is wasted ventilation
8. When V/Q ratio <1, it is wasted perfusion (or shunting), which causes incomplete
oxygenation of the blood
9. Anatomic dead space is calculated by Fowler’s technique (or Nitrogen analysis in
expired air after a single deep breath of 100% oxygen. Also k/a single breath N2
analysis.
10. Physiologic dead space can be calculated by Bohr’s equation.
11. Bohr’s equation can also be used to calculate dead space/tidal volume ratioQ
PECO2 X tidal volume = PACO2 X (tidal volume – dead space volume)
PECO2/ PACO2 = (VT - VD)/ VT
PECO2/ PACO2 = (1- VD/ VT)
PECO2/ (PACO2 = 1- VD/ VT
VD/ VT = 1 – PECO2/PACO2
12. Spirometery
▫ Tidal volume is volume of air inspired or expired during a normal, tidal respiration
▫ Inspiratory reserve volume is the volume of air inspired forcefully over and
maximum expiration
▫ Inspiratory capacity = IRV + TV
▫ Functional residual capacity is the volume of air which remains in the lungs at
▫ Vital capacity is the volume of air expired forcefully after a forceful inspiration
▫ FEV1 is the volume of air expired forcefully at the end of one second after a
changes from -4cm H2O to -8cm H2O, how much is the lung compliance?
21. Specific compliance = compliance/ FRC
22. Elastance is inverse to compliance. Elastance is defined as change in pressure per
unit change in lung volume.
23. La place’s Law states that tension (T) in the wall of an organ is equal to the product
of the pressure surrounding it and its radius ( r)
T= Pr
P=T/r
In case of an alveolus, which is a spherical viscus
P = T(1/r1+ 1/r2)
196 | Physiology
But since r1 = r2
P = T (2/r)
P = 2T/r
24. Compliance is inverse to the surface tension
25. Compliance during inspiration and expiration- graph obtained is called as Hysteresis
loop.
AfraTafreeh.com
▫ Inspiration (Inflation of the lungs) & expiration (deflation) of lungs follow
sea level?
30. Alveolar gas equation is used to calculate partial pressure of O2 in the alveolus
PAO2 = PIO2 - (PACO2/ R)
▫ Sample question- If a patient is given 80% O2, how much is the alveolar O2 at
sea level?
▫ Another one- if an individual is given 100% O2 at 4 times atmospheric pressure,
AfraTafreeh.com
198 | Physiology
Worksheet
• MCQ OF “RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY” FROM DQB
AfraTafreeh.com
Respiratory Physiology | 199
Important Tables (Active recall)
Lung volumes and capacities
Residual volume
FRC
Vital capacity
FEV1/FVC
PEFR
MEFR
Diffusing capacity
200 | Physiology
Shift of oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve
Factors causing shift of OHDC to left Factors causing shift of OHDC to right
AfraTafreeh.com
Types of hypoxia
Type of hypoxia Causes Diagnosis Peripheral
chemoreceptor
stimulation present/
absent
Hypoxic hypoxia
Anemic hypoxia
Stagnant hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia
6 Central Nervous System
CONCEPTS
 Concept 6.1 Synapses
 Concept 6.2 Types of inhibition
 Concept 6.3 Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
 Concept 6.4 Receptors
 Concept 6.5 Laws of sensory physiology
 Concept 6.6 Ascending tracts
 Concept 6.7 Reflexes
 Concept 6.8 AfraTafreeh.com
Reticular formation
 Concept 6.9 Thalamus
 Concept 6.10 EEG
 Concept 6.11 Evoked cortical potentials
 Concept 6.12 Sleep
 Concept 6.13 Effect of transection at different levels
 Concept 6.14 Motor system- control of movement
 Concept 6.15 Basal ganglia
 Concept 6.16 Cerebellum
 Concept 6.17 Brodmann’s areas
 Concept 6.18 Hypothalamus
 Concept 6.19 Taste
202 | Physiology
Concept 6.1 : Synapse
Learning Objectives :
• To define synapse
• To enumerate the characteristics of synapses
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
Types of inhibtion
1. Post- synaptic 2. Pre-synaptic
3. Feedback 4. Feedforward
5. Lateral
Inhibitory A A
Neuro-
Trans
Mitter AfraTafreeh.com Inhibitory
– + Neuro-
Trans
Mitter
B B
This is because of the release of an inhibitory ‘A’ releases an excitatory NT, to excite B. But ‘C’
neurotrasmitter (NT), e.g., Glycine from neuron A; ends presynaptically on ‘A’, releases an inhibitory
this produces an IPSP in neuron B. neurotransmitter, which hyperpolarizes ‘A’
decreasing the release of the excitatory NT. Salient
Features of Presynaptic Inhibition:
• It is example of axo-axonic synapse.
• It is stimulated by general anaesthetics.
• It is inhibited by picrotoxin.
• It is mostly due to GABA.
204 | Physiology
A
A
+
B
B +
–
-
C
C
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Receptors
Sensory receptors are transducers that convert various forms of energy in the
environment into action potentials in the neurons.
Sensory coding
Converting a stimulus into a recognizable sensation is termed as sensory coding.
AfraTafreeh.com
Receptors “code” for four elementary attributes of a stimulus, which are:-
(i) Location or site on the body where the stimulus originated.
(ii) Modality is the type of energy transmitted by the receptor.
(iii) Intensity- with increase in strength of stimulus, (a) number of receptors activated
increase, and (b) the frequency of action potential generation increasesQ
(iv) Duration refers to the time between start and end of a response in the receptor
Adequate stimulus
The form of energy to which a receptor is most sensitive or to which a receptor responds
at low energy levels is called its adequate stimulus.
Sensory receptors can respond to forms of energy other than their adequate stimuli, but
the threshold for these non-specific responses is much higher.
Rods and cones can respond to light and pressure but the adequate stimulus for rods
and cones is light. Pressure on the eyeballs can stimulate rods and cones, but the
threshold of these receptors to pressure is much higher than for light.
Tactile receptors
These can be classified as
A. Rapidly Adapting
B. Slowly Adapting
A. Rapidly Adapting
• Also called phasic receptors, rate receptors, movement detectors.
• Activated only when stimulus strength changes (rate of change of stimulus strength
is detected by a rapidly adapting receptor).
Central Nervous System | 207
• These are encapsulated nerve endings.
• Examples
Pacinian corpuscles- for light touch, vibration (30-800 cps), deep pressure (such
as poking).
Meissner’s corpuscles in glabrous skin- for light touch, vibrations up to 80 cps,
textureQ, topognosis, Braille.
Hair end organs- detect light movement of objects over the skin surface that
displace hair.
B. Slowly Adapting
• Also called tonic receptors.
• Activated by a steady stimulus (signal stimulus strength over extended periods of
time)- they transmit a continuous signal.
• These are expanded nerve endings or free nerve endings.
• Examples
Merkel’s disc- signal continuous touch in glabrous and hairy areas, also sustained
pressure.
Ruffini endings- for touch and sustained pressureQ on skin.
C- mechanoreceptors- for crude touch and pressure.
Receptors for position sense- muscle spindles, receptors in joint capsules.
Receptors in the macula of the vestibular apparatus.
AfraTafreeh.com
Carotid and aortic baroreceptors (adaptation time is two days).
Chemoreceptors (do not adapt).
Pain receptors (pain receptors are free nerve endings, they do not adapt or adapt
very slowly).
Itch is detected by slowly adapting chemical nociceptorceptors.
Mechanism of adaptation:
Adaptation results from (i) readjustments in the structure of the receptor itself, and
from (ii) an electrical type of accommodation in the terminal nerve fibril.
TRP channels
These are a family of non selective cation channels on sensory nerve endings. They
respond to a variety of noxious thermal, mechanical or chemical stimuli. Examples:-
• TRPV1 (V stands for vanilloid)- activated by intense heat, acids, chemicals such as
capsaicin
• TRPV3- activated by intense heat; TRPV3 can activate TRPV1
• TRPA1 (A stands for ankyrin)- activated by noxious mechanical, cold and chemical
stimuli
• ASIC (acid sensing ion channel)- activated by pH changes within physiological limits;
dominant receptor for acid-induced pain
• P2X, P2Y (purinergic receptors)- nociceptive (painful) mechanical stimuli cause the
release of ATP that acts on P2X and P2Y
208 | Physiology
• TrkA (tyrosine receptor kinase A)- tissue damage releases nerve growth factor which
acts on TrkA, producing pain
• B1 and B2 receptors are activated by bradykinin, prostanoid receptors by
prostaglandins, cytokine receptors by interleukins and are therefore, responsible for
inflammatory pain
H+ TRPV1, ASIC
Cold TRPA1
Capsaicin TRPV1
AfraTafreeh.com
Central Nervous System | 209
Concept 6.5 : Laws of sensory physiology
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the different laws related to sensory physiology and to understand their
significance
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
1. Bell-Megendie Law
This law states that the dorsal root is sensory and ventral root is motor
2. Muller’s Doctrine of specific nerve energies:
No matter where along the nerve pathway one stimulates, the type of sensation
will depend on which part of the brain is finally going to be stimulated. The specific
sensory pathways are discrete from sense organ to cortex. Therefore, when the nerve
pathways from a particular sense organ are stimulated, the sensation evoked is that
for which the receptor is specialized no matter how or where along the pathway the
activity is initiated.
3. Law of Projection:
No matter where along the nerve pathway one stimulates, the sensation will be felt
AfraTafreeh.com
at the location of the receptor.
4. Weber Fechner Law
This law relates the sensation felt (S) to the intensity of the stimulus (I).
S = K log I, where K is a constant
5. Stevens’ Power law
Sensation felt (S) = K × Ia, where K and a are constants
210 | Physiology
Concept 6.6 : Ascending tracts
Learning Objectives:
• To understand differences between the two major ascending pathways, anterolateral
system and posterior columns
• To understand course of ascending tracts
• To understand the divisions of spinocerebellar tracts and their role in proprioception
• To enumerate the features of Brown Sequard syndrome
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
Anterolateral system:
This includes
1. Anterior (or ventral) spinothalamic tract: This carries crude touch, detection of
pressure (barognosis), itch, tickle, sexual sensations
2. Lateral Spinothalamic tract: This carries pain and temperature
Anterolateral system is more primitive in terms of evolution whereas DCML system
appeared later.
Anterolateral system conveys rather crude senses, whereas the leminiscal system
AfraTafreeh.com
columns.
In the anterolateral system, fibers from the sacral and lumbar regions are situated
most laterally.
Anterolateral system gives collateral to periacqueductal gray and reticular
activating system.
Localization much better in lemniscal system.
system.
Dorsal column medial lemniscal system (DCML system)
This carries the rest of the sensations e.g. proprioception, vibration, fine touch, tactile
localization, two- point discrimination, stereognosis, ability to judge different degrees
of pressure.
Lesions of the dorsal column medial lemniscal system
• Only very extensive lesions completely interrupt touch sensation.
• Vibration and proprioception reduced.
• Touch threshold is elevated; touch localization impaired.
• Sensory ataxia (because of interruption of proprioceptive input into the cerebellum)-
Romberg’s sign with eyes closed is positive.
Central Nervous System | 211
Lesions of the anterolateral tracts
• Loss of pain and temperature sense.
• Slight touch deficit- increase in touch threshold and decrease in the number of touch-
sensitive spots on the skin surface.
• Touch localization is normal.
AfraTafreeh.com
Note: Visceral sensations travel along the same pathways as somatic sensations in the spinothalamic tracts and thalamic
radiations, and the cortical receiving areas for visceral sensation are intermixed with the somatic receiving areas.
Central Nervous System | 213
AfraTafreeh.com
Spinocerebellar tracts
Division Receptors Region of innervation
Dorsal spinocerebellar tract Muscle spindles (mainly) and Ipsilateral lower limbs
Golgi tendon organs
Ventral spinocerebellar tract GTO Ipsilateral lower limb
Cuneocerebellar tract Muscle spindles (mainly) and Ipsilateral upper limb
GTO
Rostral spinocerebellar tract GTO Ipsilateral upper limb
Time Needed
1st reading 15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Reciprocal innervation.
4. Polysynaptic reflex
Examples AfraTafreeh.com
Superficial reflexes
Axon reflex
• It is an example of asynaptic reflex.
• It is responsible for the spreading redness k/a ‘flare’ in triple response and is a part of the normal reaction
to injury.
• Antidromic conduction of impulses in branches of sensory nerve fibres to the blood vessels supplying
the area, causes release of substance P and CGRP, both of which cause arteriolar dilatation and ‘flare’
response.
• This is a neural response and an asynaptic reflex.
• It is absent in locally anesthetized skin and in denervated skin, but is present immediately after nerve
block or section above the site of injury.
No. of synapses 01 02
Stretch reflex
Central Nervous System | 217
Inverse stretch reflex
The Golgi tendon reflex (inverse stretch reflex)
AfraTafreeh.com
218 | Physiology
Concept 6.8 : Reticular formation
Learning Objectives:
• To define the reticular formation
• To enumerate its connections, both afferent and efferent
• To enumerate the functions of reticular formation
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
It is a loose network of nerve cells and fibers in the central core of the brainstem
(It is present in the mid ventral portion of the medulla, pons and midbrain).
It is a complex poly-synaptic pathway and has many of the important centers in
the medulla viz deglutition center, vomiting center, respiratory center, center for
cardiovascular regulation
It has role in focusing of attention (selective attention) probably by cutting off all
other signals
It is necessary for learning and conditioned reflex
Central Nervous System | 219
Concept 6.9 : Thalamus
Learning Objectives
• To understand the functional classification of thalamus and classification of dorsal
thalamic nuclei
• To enumerate functions of thalamus
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
These nuclei receive input from the reticular formation (the ARAS).
Impulses from the nuclei are responsible for the diffuse secondary response in
B. Specific nuclei :-
1. Sensory relay nuclei
(i) Medial geniculate body (concerned with hearing – relay auditory impulses to
auditory cortex)
(ii) Lateral geniculate body (concerned with vision – relay visual impulses to visual
cortex)
(iii) Ventro posterior lateral- These nuclei are the sites of termination of the ascending
somatic afferent tracts; the medial lemniscus (carrying sensation from all parts
except the face) ends in the ventroposterior lateral ; the trigeminal lemniscus
(carrying sensations from face and taste sensation ) ends in the ventroposterior
medial nucleus.
(iv) Ventro-postero medial- relays taste.
(v) Medio-dorsal thalamic- relays olfaction.
2. Nuclei concerned with control of posture and movement (motor control
nuclei)
(i) Ventrolateral nucleus -This is the chief motor nucleus of the thalamus. It receives
fibres from the cerebellum (the dentato – thalamic fibers of cerebellum). Fibers
from the ventrolateral nucleus project to the primary motor cortex (area 4) and
pre- motor cortex (area 6)
(ii) Ventro anterior nucleus -It receives fibers from the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
It projects to the premotor cortex.
220 | Physiology
3. Thalamic nuclei concerned with Papez circuit
(i) Anterior thalamic nuclei, which receive afferents from the mamillary bodies and
project to the cingulate gyrus, which is a part of the limbic system.
Functions of thalamus
These can be predicted from the connections mentioned above
1. It is a sensory relay station- it is an important relay station for all sensations
except smell
2. Center for integration and modification of peripheral sensory impulses
3. Also a crude center for perception of sensations
4. Motor function- it is also a relay station for the motor fibers from the basal ganglia
and cerebellum on their way to the cerebral cortex
5. It also relays a part of the ARAS – has a role in arousal and alertness reaction
6. Involved in subjective feeling of various emotions
7. Role in language- integration between different cortical parts by subcortical
connections in the thalamus helps to achieve speech
8. Role in synchronization of EEG
9. Thalamus receives somatic as well as autonomic sensations, and is also connected
with hypothalamus. Because of this it also acts as a center for integration of visceral
and somatic function
10. Center of sexual sensations
11. Center of reflex activity- since all sensory fibers relay in the thalamus, it forms the
center for many reflex activities.
Central Nervous System | 221
Concept 6.10 : EEG
Learning Objectives :
• To enumerate the different waves of EEG and discuss salient features of each
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
Hans Berger made the first systematic analysis of EEG
Waves in the EEG
Delta, theta, alpha, beta (from delta to beta, the frequency increases and the
amplitude decreases)
Occur in deep sleep (slow wave sleep/ stages III and IV of NREM sleep), infancy,
serious organic brain disease, animals with subcortical transection (i.e., delta
waves can occur in cortex independent of activities in lower areas).
2. Theta rhythm
Frequency is 4-7/second.
AfraTafreeh.com
3. Alpha rhythm –
Seen at rest, with the eyes closed and the mind wandering.
▫ high Paco2
Gamma oscillations at 30-80 Hz are seen when the individual is aroused and focuses
attention on something. This is replaced by irregular fast activity as the individual
initiates motor activity in response to the stimulus.
Sources of EEG
It is due to the constantly shifting / fluctuating dipole between the dendrites of the
cortical cells and the cell bodies.
AfraTafreeh.com
Central Nervous System | 223
Concept 6.11 : Evoked cortical potentials
Learning Objectives:
• To understand primary and secondary evoked cortical potentials
Time Needed
1 reading
st
03 mins
2nd look 01 mins
Electrical events that occur in the cortex after stimulation of a sensory receptor can be
monitored with a recording electrode.
The EEG changes produced by stimulation of a sense organ are k/a evoked cortical
potentials.
Evoked cortical potential consist of
1. Primary evoked potential
This consists of positive and a small negative wave. It has a latency of 5-12 ms. It
is highly specific in its location (over the primary receiving area of the cortex for
the particular sensory pathway that has been stimulated to evoke). It is produced by
conduction of sensory signal through a specific sensory pathway.
2. Diffuse secondary response
This consists of a larger, more prolonged positive deflection. It has a latency of 20-80
AfraTafreeh.com
ms and may last 30 seconds. Its activity can be recorded at the same time over most
of the cerebral cortex. It is produced due to activity in projections from midline and
related thalamic nuclei
224 | Physiology
Concept 6.12 : Sleep
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the differences between REM and NREM sleep
• To enumerate EEG waves recorded in different stages of sleep
• To enumerate different mechanisms involved in genesis of REM and NREM sleep
• To understand the role of neurotransmitters in sleep
Time Needed
1st reading 05 mins
2 look
nd
02 mins
REM sleep
(i) Also called paradoxical sleep.
▫ During this phase, beta waves of EEG are recorded which are normally seen in
(ii) It is a period of autonomic instability- heart rate & respiratory rate become
irregular; partial or full penile erections occur.
(iii) Rapid eye movement – present.
AfraTafreeh.com
(iv) Dreaming (with vivid dream recall).
(v) Tone of neck muscles is markedly decreased, other muscles keep their tone; but
there is locus ceruleus dependent relative paralysis of voluntary activity.
(vi) P-G-O (ponto-geniculo-occipital) spikes – present (not detectable in humans by
scalp EEG but are recordable by depth EEG recordings).
NREM sleep (slow – wave sleep)
(i) It is generally a restful state.
(ii) BP, heart rate and respiratory rate decrease during NREM sleep.
(iii) Body metabolism is decreased.
(iv) Somnabulism, somniloquy, nocturnal enuresis, bruxism are associated with slow –
wave sleep, especially NREM stage 2
(v) Dreaming occurs in NREM but no recall (night terrors)
Genesis of sleep
1. REM
The mechanism that triggers REM sleep is located in the pontine reticular formation.
PGO spikes originate in the lateral pontine tegmentum. The spikes are due to discharge
of cholinergic neurons
2. NREM
Stimulation of certain sleep zones can produce sleep
Diencephalic sleep zone (In the posterior hypothalamus and the near by
intralaminar and anterior thalamic nuclei); for producing sleep it requires low
frequency stimulation
Medullary synchronizing zone (In the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata
at the level of the nucleus of the tractus solitarius); this also requires low frequency
stimulation for producing sleep
Basal forebrain sleep zone (includes preoptic area and the diagonal band of Broca);
this can produce sleep by both low as well as high frequency stimulation
AfraTafreeh.com
Neurotransmitters in sleep
226 | Physiology
Concept 6.13 : Effect of transection at different levels
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the effect of transection above the spinal cord the to enumerate the
spinal reflexes that can be seen
• To understand the effect of transection at upper border of pons and enumerate
features of decerebration
• To understand the effect of transection at superior border of midbrain leaving the
midbrain intact
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia on the gamma motor neuron is removed).
Central Nervous System | 227
(Although the cerebellum also has an inhibitory influence on gamma motor neuron,
removal of the cerebellum in humans causes hypotonia)
• The decerebrate rigidity in animals is most marked in the antigravity muscle. However,
in humans the pattern of decerebrate rigidity is extensor in all the 4 limbs.
(note that in decorticate rigidity, there is extensor rigidity in the legs and moderate
flexion in arms)
• Tonic labyrinthine and tonic neck reflexes (center- medulla) are present: these
reflexes are responsible for the change in the pattern of rigidity with change in the
position. They are not righting reflexes.
• Righting reflexes (center- midbrain) are absent.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
Descending tracts
• Medial desceding tracts are mainly for control of axial and proximal muscles. They are
meant for tone and posture.
• Anterior corticospinal, vestibulospinal, tectospinal tracts innervate the A alpha motor
neurns to the extensors (especially those of lower limb or the anti-gravity muscles-
extensors of hip and knee).
• Reticulospinat tracts supply the A-gamma motor neurons to extensors (especially
lower limb extensors); pontine reticulospinal tract increases A-gamma activity;
medullary reticulospinal tract decreases A-gamma activity.
Central Nervous System | 229
• Lateral descending tracts are meant for control of distal muscles and for fine, skilled
movements.
• Lateral descending tracts innervate the A-alpha motor neurons to the flexors
(especially upper limb flexors).
• The major tract for fine, skilled movement is lateral corticospinal tract; rubrospinal
tract is k/a alternate pathway.
the bottom.
Except the face area (which has bilateral representation), the rest of the
movement.
Supplementary motor area is involved primarily in programming motor sequences
3. Somatic sensory area and related portions of the posterior parietal lobe
Contribute 40% of the fibers.
AfraTafreeh.com
Central Nervous System | 231
• Axons of neurons that form the corticospinal tract pass through the anterior two-
thirds of the posterior limb of the internal capsule, descend downwards crossing at
the level of the medulla and project to spinal motor neurons in the anterior horn of
spinal cord.
• 80% of the fibers cross the midline in the medulla forming the lateral pyramidal tract.
• The motor decussation forms the pyramids in the medulla.
• Remaining 20% make the ventral corticospinal tract, which does not cross the midline.
• The corticobulbar tract is made of fibers that pass from the motor cortex to motor
neurons in the trigeminal, facial and hypoglossal nuclei.
• Fibers of the corticobulbar tract pass through the genu of the internal capsule to
descend with corticospinal tract fibers in the pons and medulla.
LMN and UMN:
The motor system can be divided into lower and upper motor neurons.
• Lower motor neurons refer to the spinal and cranial motor neurons that directly
innervate skeletal muscles.
• Upper motor neurons are those in the cortex and brain stem that activate lower motor
neurons.
Time Needed
1st reading 20 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Overall circuitry
Main features :
(i) Cerebral cortex projects to striatum; the striatum to internal segment of globus
AfraTafreeh.com
pallidus, internal segment of globus pallidus to thalamus & from thalamus back to
cerebral cortex, completing a loop, k/a thalamo-cortico-striatal loop.
(ii) Output from internal segment of globus pallidus to thalamus and pedunculo-
pontine nuclei (PPN) is INHIBITORY, whereas output from thalamus to cerebral
cortex is EXCITATORY.
(iii) Output from substantia nigra pars reticularis to thalamus is INHIBITORY.
234 | Physiology
Activation of direct pathway results in facilitation of movement.
Via thalamus
basal ganglia motor cortex
motor neurons
2. Basal ganglia have some role in cognitive processes (especially that of the caudate
nucleus).
3. Control and co-ordinate complex patterns of movement, automatic, skilled movements
(eg., using scissors to cut paper) and associated movements (eg., swinging of the
arms while walking, facial expressions while talking).
4. In close association with the cerebral cortex, timing (how rapidly a movement has to
be performed) and scaling (how large a movement will be) of movements.
236 | Physiology
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
• Described by James Parkinson in 1817.
• Also k/a paralysis agitans. AfraTafreeh.com
• It results form degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.
• It has both hypokinetic and hyperkinetic features.
• Hypokinetic features- bradykinesia (difficulty in initiating movement) and akinesia (absence of motor
activity).
• Hyperkinetic features- tremor at rest (disappears with activity), pill rolling movements, cogwheel rigidity,
lead pipe rigidity (rigidity is different from spasticity because motor neuron discharge increases to both
agonist and antagonist muscles).
• In Parkinson’s disease, the dopaminergic input to the putamen is lost- this results in decreased inhibition
and increased excitation from the subthalamic nucleus to the GPi.
• The overall increase in inhibitory output to the thalamus and brainstem disorganizes movement.
• An important consideration in Parkinson’s is the balance between the excitatory discharge of cholinergic
interneurons and the inhibitory dopaminergic input into the striatum.
• Some improvement is produced by decreasing the cholinergic influence with anticholinergic drugs.
• More dramatic improvement is produced by administration of L-DOPA. Unlike dopamine, this dopamine
precursor crosses the blood-brain barrier and helps repair the dopamine deficiency.
• However, the degeneration of these neurons continues and in 5-7 years the beneficial effects of L-dopa
disappear.
Central Nervous System | 237
Concept 6.16 : Cerebellum
Learning Objectives:
• To understand functional divisions of the cerebellum, their functions and connections
• To understand organization of the cerebellum- outer cerebellar cortex and deep nuclei
• To enumerate afferent connections of the cerebellum the tracts forming climbing and
mossy fibers
• To understand inside connections (circuitry) of cerebellum
• To understand functions of cerebellum
• To enumerate features of cerebellar disease
Time Needed
1 reading
st
25 mins
2nd look 15 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
238 | Physiology
Organization of cerebellum
The cerebellum is organized as
(i) Outer cerebellar cortex
(ii) Deep cerebellar nuclear
Outer Cerebellar cortex has 3 layers and 5 types of cells:
The 3 layers are
• The outer molecular
• Middle purkinje
• Inner granular
The 5 cells are:
• Purkinje
• Granular
• Golgi
• Stellate
Central Nervous System | 239
AfraTafreeh.com
cerebellar cortex.
The climbing fibers ends on the Purkinje cell; the mossy fibers innervate the
granule cell, which in turn give rise to parallel fibers that in turn form excitatory
synapses with the multiple Purkinje cells.
The input to the Purkinje cell from the climbing fibre is 1:1; it is a stong excitatory
input and produces a complex spike whereas the input to the Purkinje cell from
the mossy fibre is 1 million : 1; it is a weak input and produces a simple spike.
Climbing fibers
• Climbing Fibers come from one single source viz., the inferior olivary nuclei.
• Climbing fibers convey proprioceptive inputs from all over the body.
• Proprioceptive input from all over the body → Inferior olivary nuclei → Climbing fibers
→ Purkinje cell
Mossy fibers:
• They come from many sources.
• The fibers first end on the dendrites of the granule cells in “glomeruli”.
• The mossy fibers convey proprioceptive input from all parts of the body and also input
AfraTafreeh.com
from the cerebral cortex via pontine nuclei to the cerebellar cortex.
Functions of cerebellum
(i) Maintenance of equilibrium – this is the function of the vestibulo cerebellum (i.e. the
flocculonodular lobe). There is inter connection between the vestibular apparatus and
the flocculonodular lobe.
(ii) Role in regulation of tone/ posture – the effects of the cerebellum on the stretch
reflex are complex. With cerebellar disease one would expect an increased in tone. But
in humans, hypotonia occurs in cerebellar disease. The spinocerebellum projects on
AfraTafreeh.com
The alpha motor neurons (through efferent output to vestibular nuclei)
There is a perfect co ordination between the alpha and gamma motor neuron
discharge (the alpha- gamma linkage). The linkage exists at the level of the spinal
cord; the ‘switch’ for the linkage is in the cerebellum.
(iii) Error control function / effects on movement- By comparing plan with
performance, (the cerebellum gets input from the cortex as well as various sensory
inputs) the cerebellum makes anticipatory corrections.
(iv) Planning functions – This is the function of the neocerebellum
(v) Role in learning: The cerebellum is concerned with learned adjustments to
repetitive tasks.
Features of Cerebellar lesions/ disease
No paralysis
No sensory deficit
No abnormalities at rest (except the changes in stretch reflexes)
Ataxia (drunken gait)
Slurred/ scanning speech
Dysmetria (past- pointing)
Intention tremor
Rebound phenomenon
Adiadochokinesia
Decomposition of movement
Central Nervous System | 243
Concept 6.17 : Brodmann’s areas
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate Brodmann’s areas and their functions
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
3. Premotor area = 6
8. Broca’s area = 44
Wernicke’s area = 22
9. Cingulete gyrus = 24
Angular gyrus = 39
244 | Physiology
Concept 6.18 : Hypothalamus
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate nuclei of hypothalamus and their functions
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
Hypothalamic nuclei
Function Nucleus
Temperature regulation Posterior hypothalamus; respond to cold (heat gain
center)
Anterior hypothalamus including the preoptic
nucleus; responds to warmth (heat loss center)
Endocrine control of
↑TSH via TRH Paraventricular
↑ACTH via CRH Paraventricular
↑FSH, LH via GnRH Arcuate
AfraTafreeh.com
↑GH via GHRH Arcuate
↓GH via Somatostatin Arcuate
↓Prolactin via PIF Arcuate
Neuroendocrine
Vasopressin Supraoptic (mainly) and paraventricular
Oxytocin Supraoptic and paraventricular(mainly)
Hunger Lateral hypothalamus
Satiety Ventromedial hypothalamus
Thirst Lateral hypothalamus
Rage Lateral hypothalamus
Reward (pleasure) Ventromedial hypothalamus
Circadian rhythm Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Sexual behavior Anterior most hypothalamus (anterior ventral
hypothalamus) and posterior most parts of
hypothalamus and in males, piriform cortex
Central Nervous System | 245
Concept 6.19 : Taste pathway
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate location of taste buds and different cells in taste buds
• To enunciate the taste pathway
• To enumerate different taste modalities, their receptors and transduction
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Taste buds
• Specialized sense organ for taste (gestation) consists of approximately 10,000 taste
buds.
• Each taste bud is an ovoid body measuring 50- 70 µm.
• Taste buds are located in the mucosa of epiglottis, palate, pharynx and in the walls of
the papillae of the tongue. The papillae of the tongue are
Fungiform- rounded, most numerous near the tip of the tongue; each papilla has
differentiate into new taste cells; old cells are continuously replaced with a half
time of about 10 days
Taste cells- three types, representing various stages of maturity (light cells being
• Taste buds are located in the mucosa of epiglottis, palate, pharynx and in the walls of
the papillae of the tongue. The papillae of the tongue are
Fungiform- rounded, most numerous near the tip of the tongue; each papilla has
Taste pathway
• Taste buds on the anterior two- thirds of the tongue are innervated by the chorda
tympani branch of the facial nerve.
246 | Physiology
• Taste buds on the posterior one- third of the tongue are innervated by the lingual
branch of the glosso pharyngeal nerve
• Fibers from other areas, such as the pharynx reach the brain stem via the vagus.
Taste modalities
Humans have five basic taste modalities:
• Salty AfraTafreeh.com
• Sour
• Umami
• Bitter
• Sweet
All tastants (taste stimuli) are sensed from all parts of the tongue and the adjacent
structures.
Note : T2R, T1R3 belong to TRP (transient receptor potential) channelsQ, a family of excitatory ion channels
Central Nervous System | 247
Worksheet
• MCQ OF “CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM” FROM DQB
AfraTafreeh.com
248 | Physiology
Important Tables (Active recall)
Thalamic sensory relay nuclei
Somatic sensations
Visual sensations
Auditory sensations
Taste
Olfaction
Stimulus
Receptor
Afferent fibers
Center
Efferent
Response
No. of synapses
Central Nervous System | 249
Differences between UMN and LMN paralysis
UMN lesion LMN lesion
Type of paralysis
DTJ
Pathological reflex
Superficial reflexes
Vestibulo cerebellum
(or the floculo- nodular lobe)
Spinocerebellum
Cerebro cerebellum
(or neocerebellum)
250 | Physiology
Brodmann’s areas
Area Number
Premotor area
Cingulete gyrus
Angular gyrus
Hypothalamic nuclei
Function Nucleus
Temperature regulation
Endocrine control of
Neuroendocrine
Vasopressin
Oxytocin
AfraTafreeh.com
Hunger
Satiety
Thirst
Rage
Reward (pleasure)
Circadian rhythm
Sexual behavior
252 | Physiology
Taste receptors and transduction
Taste Triggered by Receptor
Salty
Sour
Umami
Bitter
Sweet
AfraTafreeh.com
7 Endocrinology
CONCEPTS
 Concept 7.1 Differences between lipid soluble
and water soluble hormones
 Concept 7.2 Second messengers
 Concept 7.3 Hypothalamic- pituitary axis
 Concept 7.4 Anterior pituitary hormones
 Concept 7.5 Antidiuretic hormone
AfraTafreeh.com
 Concept 7.6 Thyroid hormones
 Concept 7.7 Secretions of adrenal glands
 Concept 7.8 Secretions of pancreas
 Concept 7.9 Insulin
 Concept 7.10 Glucagon
 Concept 7.11 Other hormones secreted by the
pancreas
 Concept 7.12 Parathormone
 Concept 7.13 Vitamin D and its role in calcium
metabolism
254 | Physiology
Concept 7.1 : Lipid soluble and water soluble hormones
Learning Objectives
• To enumerate the differences between lipid soluble and water soluble hormones
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
G Proteins
AfraTafreeh.com
• Are GTP- binding proteins that couple hormone receptors to adjacent effector
molecules. For example, in the cAMP second messenger system, G proteins couple
the hormone receptor with adenylate cyclase enzyme.
• Are used in the cAMP and inositol triphosphate second messenger systems.
• Have intrinsic GTPase activity.
• Have three subunits- alpha, beta and gamma.
• Alpha subunit can bind GTP or GDP- when GTP is bound to the alpha subunit, the GTP
is active and when GDP is bound, the G protein is inactive.
• G proteins can be stimulatory (Gs) or inhibitory (Gi). stimulatory or inhibitory activity
resides in the alpha subunits.
Second Messengers
The extracellular ligands are called “first messengers” and the intracellular mediators
are called “second messengers”.
Second messengers bring about many short term changes in cell function by altering enzyme
function, triggering exocytosis, etc, but they also alter transcription of various genes.
• Short lived intracellular signaling molecules
• Elevated concentration of second messenger leads to rapid alteration in the activity
of one or more cellular enzymes.
• Removed or degradation of second messenger terminate the cellular response
• Four classes of second messengers
Cyclic cucleotides
Ca2+
AfraTafreeh.com
Hormones that use the adenyl cyclase- cAMP second messenger system
ACTH
Angiotensin II (epithelial cells)
Calcitonin
Catecholamines (β1 & β2 receptors)
CRH
FSH
Glucagon
hCG
LH
PTH
Secretin
Somatostatin
TSH
Vasopressin (V2 receptor, epithelial cells)
MSH
Endocrinology | 257
Guanyl cyclase (cGMP) second messenger system
AfraTafreeh.com
AfraTafreeh.com
• Some hormones activate transmembrane receptors that activate Phospholipase C
attached to the inside of the receptors.
• Phospholipase C catalyzes the breakdown of phosphatidylinositol biphosphate into
inositol triphosphate and diacylglycerol.
• IP3 mobilizes Ca++ from mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and the calcium
ions have their own second messenger effects such as smooth muscle contraction and
changes in cell secretion.
• DAG activates the enzyme protein kinase C, which then phosphorylates a large
number of proteins, leading to the cell’s response.
Hormones using the phospholipase-IP3 (Ca++) and DAG second
messenger system
GHRH
TRH
GnRH
ADH (V1 and V3 receptors)
Oxytocin
Angiotensin II
Catecholamines (α1 receptors)
Enzyme- linked hormone receptors
• Some receptors, when activated, function directly as enzymes or are closely associated
with enzymes that they activate.
Endocrinology | 259
• These enzyme- linked receptors are proteins that pass through the membrane only
once, in contrast to the seven- transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors.
• Enzyme- linked receptors have their hormone- binding site on the outside of the
cell membrane and their catalytic or enzyme- binding site on the inside. When the
hormone binds to the extracellular part of the receptor, an enzyme immediately inside
the cell membrane is activated (or occasionally inactivated).
• Although many enzyme linked receptors have intrinsic enzyme activity (eg., insulin),
others rely on enzymes that are closely associated with the receptor to produce
changes in cell function (eg., growth hormone, leptin, which utilize the JAK2- STAT
pathway)
Receptors with tyrosine kinase activity
• Hormone binds to extracellular receptors which have tyrosine kinase activity- when
activated, tyrosine kinase phosphorylates tyrosine on proteins, leading to their
physiologic actions.
• Examples-
Nerve growth factor; receptor kinase for NGF is a monomer- binding of the NGF
with its receptor causes dimerization of the receptor, activation of intrinsic tyrosine
kinase activity, and phosphorylation of tyrosine molecules.
Insulin- receptor for insulin and IGF-1 is a dimer. Binding of the hormone with
AfraTafreeh.com
Endocrinology | 261
Concept 7.3 : Hypothalamic- pituitary axis
Learning Objectives
• To understand that the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones is under the control
of releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus
• To understand the concept of neurosecretion by the hypothalmus
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
All hypothalamic hormones are secreted in a pulsatile fashion except TRH.
Hypothalamus secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones which regulate the secretion
of anterior pituitary hormones.
The two inhibiting hormones are Somatostatin and Prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF).
Growth hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary is mainly under the control of
GHRH from the hypothalamus.
Damage to the pituitary stalk or the ‘stalk effect’Q causes an increase in the level
of Prolactin and galactorrhoeaQ (also a decrease in ADH which causes polyuria and
diabetes insipidus).
Neurosecretion by hypothalamus
• There are neural connections between the hypothalamus and posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.
• Embryologically, the posterior pituitary arises as an evagination of the floor of the
third ventricle.
• Posterior pituitary is made of the endings of axons that arise from cell bodies in the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and pass to the posterior pituitary.
• The hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (vasopressin and oxytocin) are
synthesized in the cell bodies of the magnocellular neurons in the supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei and transported down the axons of these neurons to their
endings in the posterior lobe, where they are secreted in response to electrical activity
in the endings.
• Majority of vasopressin is secreted by neurons of the supraoptic nucleus whereas
majority of oxytocin is secreted by the paraventricular nucleus.
262 | Physiology
Concept 7.4 : Anterior pituitary hormones
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the different cell types in the anterior pituitary
• To understand actions of growth hormone- direct and indirect (via IGF-1), control of
growth hormone secretion, stimuli that increase and decrease secretion of growth
hormone and disorders of growth hormone secretion
• To understand the actions of prolactin, its control, stimuli which increase prolactin
secretion
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
Growth Hormone
AfraTafreeh.com
• Anabolic hormone (other anabolic hormones- Insulin, thyroid, androgens).
• Secreted by somatotropes of the anterior pituitary.
• Monkey and human growth hormones are effective in both monkeys and humans;
porcine and bovine growth hormones are ineffective in humans.
• GH acts on the growth hormone receptor on the cell membrane→activation of the
JAK2-STAT pathway. (JAK-STAT pathway mediates the effect of Prolactin and various
other growth factors).
tissues.
Main source of IGF-1 is the liver.
Endocrinology | 263
Secretion of IGF-1 is independent of growth hormone before birth but is stimulated
by growth hormone after birth.
GH acts on cartilage to convert stem cells into cells that respond to IGF-I.
Locally produced as well as circulating IGF-I then acts on these cells producing
growth of cartilage.
Actions of IGF-I (also k/a Somatomedin C):
▫ Insulin- like activity
▫ Anti-lipolytic activity
▫ Protein synthesis
▫ Epiphyseal growth.
*IGF-II (also k/a multiplication stimulating activity or MSA) is secreted in fetal life and its secretion is independent of
growth hormone.
**IGF-I secretion peaks at puberty and is responsible for the growth spurt seen at this stage.
***IGF-I is responsible for growth after birth whereas IGF-II causes growth during fetal life.
AfraTafreeh.com
Disorders of GH secretion
Hypersecretion before fusion of long bones causes gigantism and after puberty causes
acromegaly; hyposecretion causes dwarfism
Endocrinology | 265
Causes of dwarfism:
• GHRH deficiency
• GH deficiency
• Deficient secretion of IGF-1 (African pygmies have a congenital inability to secrete IGF- I)
• Growth hormone insensitivity or Laron dwarf (plasma growth hormone concentration is normal or
elevated but their growth hormone receptors are unresponsive as a result of loss- of- function mutations),
cretinism
• Precocious puberty
• Syndrome of gonadal dysgenesis (XO)
• Constitutional delayed growth
• Chronic abuse and neglect (psychosocial dwarfism or the Kaspar Hauser syndrome)
• Various bone and metabolic disorders
• Achondroplasia
Pituitary dwarf has features consistent with their chronological age until puberty; thereafter because of the
failure to mature sexually they have juvenile features in adulthood
Thyroid dwarf, on the other hand, has infantile features (because thyroid hormones have widespread
effects on the ossification of cartilages, growth of teeth, contours of face, and the proportions of the body),
mental retardation (thyroid hormones are required for the development of CNS), deafness (thyroid hormones
required for development of the internal ear) and mutism.
AfraTafreeh.com
Prolactin
• It is the major hormone responsible for lactogenesis.
• Participates, with estrogen, in breast development.
• Is structurally homologous to growth hormone.
Normal concentration in females-5ng/mL and in males-8ng/mL
Control of prolactin secretion
Secretion of prolactin is tonically inhibited by PIF from the hypothalamus.
266 | Physiology
Factors causing an increase in PRL:
(Mnemonic: Nu PETS SHOP)
• Nursing
• Pregnancy
• Estrogen
• TRH
• Somatostatin
• Stress, strenuous exercise, breast stimulation in a non pregnant female, sleep, sexual
intercourse
• Hypoglycemia
• Hypothyroidism
• Opiates
• Phenothiazines
*L-DOPA and bromocriptine decrease secretion
PRL levels increase during pregnancy, reaching a peak at parturition.
After parturition, PRL levels decrease to normal non pregnant levels in 8 days,
normal range.
AfraTafreeh.com
Endocrinology | 267
Concept 7.5 : Antidiuretic hormone
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the mechanism of synthesis and secretion of ADH
• To understand control of ADH secretion, stimuli which increase and decrease secretion
of ADH, ADH receptors- their location and actions.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
Supraoptic nucleus
AfraTafreeh.com
Signal peptide + AVP + Neurophysin II + glycopeptide
(precursor molecule K/a prepropressophysin)
ADH receptors
There are three kinds of vasopressin receptors- V1A, V1B, V2; all are G- protein
coupled.
Receptor Site Actions Actions
mediated by
V1A • Vascular smooth muscle IP3 & Ca++ • Vasoconstriction
• Heart AfraTafreeh.com
• Myocardial hypertrophy
• Area postrema • Action on area postrema decreases cardiac
• output and Bp; this action is in contrast to the
• Liver direct action of vasopressin on the vascular
smooth muscle- hence a large amount of
• Brain and spinal cord vasopressin is needed to raise the blood
• Platelets pressure in vivo.
• Produces glycogenlysis in liver
• Acts as a neurotransmitter in brain and spinal
cord
• Platelet aggregation
V1B (V3) • Anterior+ pituitary IP3 & Ca++ • Increases secretion of ACTH, PRL,
Endorphins
V2 • Collecting duct cAMP • Causes insertion of acquaporin 2 into the
luminal membrane of P cells of collecting
duct, increasing the water reabsorption
270 | Physiology
Concept 7.6 : Thyroid hormones
Learning Objectives
• To enumerate the steps in synthesis of thyroid hormones
• To understand the mechanism of secretion and transport of thyroid hormones
• To understand the fate of T4, T3
• To enumerate the conditions which cause an increase in RT3
• To tabulate the differences between T4 and T3
• To enumerate the physiological effects and regulation of thyroid hormone secretion
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Thyroid gland
• Thyroid made of multiple acini or follicles.
• Each follicle is surrounded by a single layer of cells and filled with colloid
• Colloid consists mainly of the glycoprotein, thyroglobulin.
Inactive gland Active gland
Colloid Abundant Scalloped/ resorption lacunae are seen
Follicle Large AfraTafreeh.com
Small
Cells Flat Columnar
concentration within the thyroid cells by the process of secondary active transport.
The energy for the secondary active transport is provided by electrochemical
gradient for Na established by the transport of Na out of the cell by the activity of
Na-K ATPase.
Transport of iodide across the apical membrane into the colloid is mediated by
AfraTafreeh.com
Transport of thyroid hormones
By transport proteins, TBG, TBPA or transthyretin, Albumin
T4 binds maximally to TBG; T3 binds maximally to Albumin
Highest capacity to bind T4: Albumin; Highest affinity to bind T4: TBG
Fate of T4, T3
T4 5’De io dinase T3 (one third of T4 is converted to T3)
The graph above shows the sharp fall in T3 and an increase in RT3 during starvation. This
reversal helps to conserve calories. The ratio of T3 and RT3 return to normal by 4 days
of overfeeding.
AfraTafreeh.com
In the following conditions there is ↓T3, ↑RT3 or RT3 > T3 (this helps in energy conservation);
T4 -free & bound, remain almost normal
• Selenium deficiency
• Drugs which inhibit deiodinases
• Burns
• Trauma
• Advanced cancer
• Cirrhosis
• Chronic kidney disease
• Myocardial infarction
• Febrile states
In Over feeding T3↑, RT3↓
Time Needed
1st reading 25 mins
2 look
nd
15 mins
only slight ↑ in PP
↑ in MAP,
• Epinephrine (E)
↑ SBP, ↓ DBP,
↑↑ PP
Slight ↑ in MAP
Endocrinology | 275
• Heart Rate (HR)
Nor Epinephrine causes a reflex bradycardia
Epinephrine causes a tachycardia
Increase in nor epinephrine and epinephrine in different conditions:
Exercise : NE↑ >> E↑
Asphyxia/Hypoxia : NE↑ > E↑
Pheochromocytoma : NE↑ > E↑
Hypoglycemia, myocardial infarction, ketoacidosis:
E↑ > NE↑
• After hypophysectomy, epinephrine synthesis decreases
Conversion of nor epinephrine to epinephrine is catalyzed by the enzyme
phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase (PNMT)
NE E
PNMT
[PNMT is stimulated by glucocorticoids]
• After adrenalectomy,
Free Epinephrine in plasma becomes zero
AfraTafreeh.com
Nor Epinephrine is unchanged
AfraTafreeh.com
CRH
ACTH AfraTafreeh.com
β-Lipotropin (β-LPH) β-endorphin
acts on adrenal cortex to cause
release of glucocorticoids
*Peak CRH and hence cortisol secretion is between 6th and 8th hours of sleep (i.e., early morning); low in late evenings.
**In Addison’s disease there is excessive secretion of ACTH → darkening of skin (because of MSH activity in ACTH).
• Cortisol secretion increases in stress (other hormones released in stress are GH,
Glucagon, Epinephrine).
AfraTafreeh.com
• It mobilizes fats (by ↑ lipolysis), proteins and carbohydrates (by ↓ uptake and by
gluconeogenesis).
• Permissive actions- cortisol facilitates the action of Glucagon and catecholamines.
These are: glucagon and catecholamines for glycogenolysis, catecholamines for
lipolysis, vasoconstriction, bronchodilatation.
• Cortisol decreases the number of basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes (BEL) and
increase the number of neutrophils, platelets, RBCs (mechanism unclear).
• Prevents the release of histamine.
• Inhibits phospholipase A2→ ↓ release of thromboxane acid from tissue phospholipids→
↓ formation of leukotrienes, thromboxane, prostaglandins, IL-1, PGI2.
Aldosterone
Synthesised only in the zona glomerulosa because aldosterone synthase is present only
in the zona glomerulosa.
Secretion controlled by the Renin Angiotensin mechanism and K+ level.
Endocrinology | 279
AfraTafreeh.com
Disorders
Primary and secondary hyperaldosteronism and hypoaldosteronism
(Meq/1)
Na+ K+ CL HCO3–
Normal 142 4.5 105 25
Adr. Insuff. 120 6.7 85 25
Pr. Hyperald,. 145 2.4 96 41
*In primary hyperaldosteronism: Only slight in Na+ plasma, because of there is an associated volume retention. With ed Na+
reabsorption, there is e d H+ excretion resulting in metabolic alkalosis.
**Primary hyperaldsteronism (‘Conn’s syndrome’) causes the following in otherwise ‘normal’ individuals:
• Weakness
• Hypertension
• Tetany
• Polyuria
• Hypokalemia
• Alkalosis
• No edema because of ‘aldosterone escape’ (due to increased secretion of ANP)
Endocrinology | 281
Concept 7.8 : Secretions of pancreas
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the cell types in the pancreas and their secretions
• To understand the control of pancreatic islet cell hormones on other islet cell hormones
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2 look
nd
03 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Endocrinology | 283
Concept 7.9 : Insulin
Learning Objectives:
• To understand the cellular mechanism of insulin secretion
• To enumerate the unique features of the Insulin receptor
• To enumerate location of different glucose transporters (GluT) and the effect of insulin
on each
• To understand the uptake of glucose by the liver and the role of insulin in facilitating
this uptake
• To enumerate the tissues in which glucose uptake is not affected by insulin
• To enumerate the stimulators and inhibitors of insulin secretion
• To understand the actions of insulin
• To understand features of insulin deficiency
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
*Placenta has both Glut 1 and Glut 3 but Glut 3 > Glut 1
Endocrinology | 285
Uptake of glucose by the liver and the role of insulin
Insulin (in liver)
↓
Induces Hexokinase
↓
es phosphorylation of glucose
↓
Intracellular free glucose concentration stays low.
↓
Glucose enters into cells
Actions of insulin
• Anabolic action
• Effect on carbohydrate metabolism
• ↑ glucose uptake
• ↑ glucose metabolism
• ↑ synthesis of glycogen
• Promotes glycogenesis
286 | Physiology
• Effect on protein metabolism
• ↑ amino acid uptake
• ↑ protein synthesis
• ↓ protein breakdown
• Effect on fat metabolism
• ↑ glucose uptake
• ↑ activity of lipoprotein lipase → ↑ triglyceride uptake
• ↑ Lipogenesis
• ↓ lipolysis (by ↓ activity of hormone sensitive lipase*)
• Pumps K+ into the cells (by an ↑ in the activity of Na+ – K+ pump)
• (*HSL activated by cortisol, GH, epinephrine, glucagon)
H+
Both
O– (The O– that cannot be covered by H+/NH4+)
are excreted in urine and accompanied by K+/Na+
Endocrinology | 287
Concept 7.10 : Glucagon
Learning Objectives:
• To compare the actions of insulin and glucagon
• To understand the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on insulin
secretion
• To understand the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on glucagon
secretion
• To enumerate factors affecting glucagon secretion
Primary target organ is the LIVER; skeletal muscle is not a target organ for glucagon
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 05 mins
Somatostatin
• Secreted by delta cells of pancreas in response to
↑ plasma glucose
Pancreatic polypeptide
• Secreted by F cells of pancreas.
• Pancreatic polypetide contains 36 amino acids.
• Its secretion is stimulated by eating, exercising, and fasting.
• It can inhibit gallbladder contraction and pancreatic exocrine secretion, but its role in
metabolism of nutrients is uncertain.
• Function of PP is probably self regulation of pancreatic secretory activities (exocrine
and endocrine).
290 | Physiology
Concept 7.12 : Parathyroid gland and parathormone
Learning Objectives
To understand the effects of 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol, Calcitonin and
Parathormone on Ca++ and PO43– metabolism
• To understand the functional anatomy of parathyroid
• To enumerate the actions of PTH
• To understand the mechanism of action of PTH and the different types of PTH receptors
• To understand the regulation of PTH secretion
Time Needed
1st reading 15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Synthesis of PTH
• PTH is a linear polypeptide with molecular weight of 9500 tat contains 84 amino acids.
• It is synthesized as part of a larger molecule containing 115 amino acid residues
called preproPTH.
• On entry of preproPTH into the endoplasmic reticulum, a leader sequence of 25 amino
acids is removed to form 90 amino acid proPTH.
• Six additional amino acids are removed to from the amino terminal part of proPTH in
the Golgi apparatus to form the 84-amino acid PTH.
• The normal plasma level of PTH is 10-55pg/mL.
Actions of PTH
PTH has the following actions
a. ↑es bone Resorption
b. Phosphaturic action (increases phosphate excretion by decreasing the reabsorption of
phosphate via NaPi-IIa in the PCT)
c. ↑es Ca++ Reabsorption in DCT
d. ↑es formation of 1,25 DHCC, and thus ↑es Ca++/PO43- absorption from intestine
AfraTafreeh.com
*Although PTH increases Ca reabsorption in DCT but in hyperparathyroidism Ca++excretion in the urine is often increased
++
because the increase in the load of filtered calcium overwhelms the effect on reabsorption.
PTH homeestasis: Effect of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on calcium and phosphate metabolism.
The net effect is an increase in the plasma calcium concentration with no change or a decrease in the plasma
phosphate concentration.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2 look
nd
05 mins
Chemistry of vitamin D
AfraTafreeh.com
Regulation of synthesis
• Formation of 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol occurs in the kidneys, which is catalyzed
by the renal 1α- hydroxylase, is regulated in a feedback manner by plasma Ca2+ and
PO43+ levels.
• When plasma Ca2+ is high, little 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol is produced, and the
kidneys produce the relatively inactive metabolite 24, 25- dihydroxycholecalciferol.
There is, therefore, reduced calcium absorption in the intestines.
• When plasma Ca2+ is low, PTH secretion is increased, and expression of 1α- hydroxylase
is stimulated by PTH.
294 | Physiology
• The production of 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol is also increased by low plasma PO43+
and inhibited by high plasma PO43+ levels, by a direct inhibitory effect of PO43+ on 1α-
hydroxylase.
• 1,25- dihydroxycholecalciferol increases plasma Ca2+ which in turn has a direct
negative feedback effect on 1α- hydroxylase activity, and a positive feedback effect
on the formation of 24, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, a less active metabolite.
• Increases plasma Ca2+ levels act on parathyroid gland to inhibit PTH formation.
AfraTafreeh.com
Endocrinology | 295
Worksheet
• MCQ OF “ENDOCRINOLOGY” FROM DQB
AfraTafreeh.com
296 | Physiology
Important Tables (Active recall)
Lipid soluble and water soluble hormones
Lipid soluble hormones Water soluble hormones
Examples
Receptors
Mode of action
AfraTafreeh.com
Storage
Transport in
plasma
Half life
Endocrinology | 297
ADH receptors
Receptor Site Actions Actions
mediated by
V1A
V1B (V3)
V2
AfraTafreeh.com
Plasma
Total
Free
% Bound
% Free
Half life
Binding
298 | Physiology
Maximum binding
Action
In colloid
Amount secreted
‘Reverse’
Potency
CONCEPTS
 Concept 8.1 Smooth muscle
 Concept 8.2 Neural control of the GI tract
 Concept 8.3 Hormonal control of the GI tract
 Concept 8.4 Secretions of GI tract
 Concept 8.5 Digestion and absorption of
AfraTafreeh.com
carbohydrates
 Concept 8.6 Digestion and absorption of proteins
 Concept 8.7 Digestion and absorption of fats
 Concept 8.8 Absorption of water and electrolytes
in different segments of the GI tract
 Concept 8.9 Movements of GI tract
 Concept 8.10 Gastrointestinal reflexes
 Concept 8.11 Metabolic rate
300 | Physiology
Concept 8.1 : Smooth muscle
Learning Objectives:
• To study the anatomy of smooth muscle and its types
• To understand the electrical activity in smooth muscle of GI tract, BER and spike
potentials
• To enumerate the different stimuli for single- unit as well as multi-unit type of smooth
muscle
• To understand the mechanism of contraction in smooth muscle
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
Functional anatomy
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastrointestinal Tract | 301
• Actin, myosin and tropomyosin are present
• No troponin
• Calcium binding protein in smooth muscle is Calmodulin
• No Z – lines (The anchorage for the actin filaments is provided by structures called
dense bodies)
• No T-tubule
• No (or rudimentary) sarcoplasmic reticulum
Types
1. Visceral (single – unit) or unitary
This is the type of smooth muscle present in hollow viscera.
There are gap junctions between muscle fibers; functions in a syncytial fashion.
AfraTafreeh.com
Vascular smooth muscle has both single-unit as well as the multi-unit type of smooth muscle
Nerve supply
• The autonomic nerve supplying the smooth muscle shows varicosities along its length.
• The nerve establishes functional contact at several points n the muscle as it courses
alongside the muscle fiber; this is called synapse en passant.
302 | Physiology
• There can be excitatory or inhibitory junctional potentials.
Electrical activity
• The membrane potential has no true “resting” value, being relatively less negative
when the tissue is active and more negative when it is inhibited.
• When the tissue is relatively quiet, the potential varies between -20 and -65mV.
• Smooth muscle of the GI tract shows the presence of slow-waves (pacemaker
potentials) AfraTafreeh.com
• These rhythmic changes in potential are initiated by the interstitial cells of
Cajal, which are also k/a the pacemaker cells of GI tract. - in the stomach
these are located in the outer circular layer near the myenteric plexus; in the colon
they are at the submucosal border of the circular muscle layer.
• These rhythmic changes in potential are believed to be due to oscillation in the activity
of the sodium- potassium ATPase pump.
• The slow waves, also k/a BER or basic electrical rhythm, are not responsible for
contraction.
• The amplitude of the slow waves or BER is 5 to 15 mV and their frequency is variable
in different parts of the GI tract.
• Function of BER is to coordinate peristaltic and other motor activity
• The rate of BER is in
f Stomach
: 4 / minute
f Duodenum
: 12 / minute (maximum)
f Distal ileum
: 8 / minute
f Caecum
: 2 / minute (minimum)
f Sigmoid colon
: 3 / minute (low frequency BER) and 5-6/min
(high frequency BER)
Gastrointestinal Tract | 303
Basic Electrical Activity
AfraTafreeh.com
• Maximum frequency of BER is in duodenum (12/min) and minimum frequency is in
cecum (2/min).
• Action potentials or spike potentials are superimposed on the slow-waves- these are
responsible for contraction.
• Depolarization phase of the spike potential is due to Calcium influx and repolarization
is due to potassium efflux.
• Duration of spike potential in smooth muscle is commonly 50 milliseconds.
2. Single unit
The response can be
(i) Spontaneous
(ii) From adjacent cells (through gap junctions)
(iii) Nerves (i.e. by neurotransmitters)
(iv) Hormones
(v) Stretch
(vi) Cold
304 | Physiology
Mechanism of contraction
Sequence of smooth muscle contraction & relaxation:
Binding of acetylcholine to muscarinic receptors
Ca++ calmodulin complex activates calmodulin- dependent myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)
Time Needed
1 reading
st
05 mins
2nd look 03 mins
▫ Myenteric or Auerbach’s plexus- lies between the outer longitudinal and middle
relaxation of sphincters.
AfraTafreeh.com
▫ Sympathetic- decreases motor and secretory activity of the GI tract; causes
contraction of sphincters.
306 | Physiology
Concept 8.3 : Hormonal control of the GI tract
Learning Objectives:
• To enumerate the two major sub-divisions of GI hormones according to their structural
similarity
• To enumerate the different hormones of the GI tract, their structure, site of secretion,
actions and stimuli increasing their secretion
Time Needed
1 reading
st
20 mins
2 look
nd
12 mins
GI hormones
There are 2 families of gastro intestinal hormones:
(i) Gastrin family → includes gastrin, CCK – PZ
(ii) Secretin family → includes secretin, glucagon, glicentin, VIP, GIP
Gastrin
• It is secreted by ‘G’ cells which are present in the antral mucosa.
• Entero endocrine cells are cells of GIT which secrete hormones (peptides). If these
cells also secrete serotonin, they are called EC (entero chromaffin) cells; if they
secrete amines (in addition to peptide secretion), they are called APUD (amine
precursor uptake and decarboxylate) cells; that is, EC cells – secrete peptides plus
Serotonin; APUD cells – secrete peptides plus amines.
• Gastrin has 3 forms: G14, 17 and 34. AfraTafreeh.com
• The principal form with respect to gastric acid secretion is G17.
• Gastrin (and CCK) shows macroheterogeneity and microheterogeneity
Macroheterogeneity is occurrence of peptide chains of varying lengths.
AfraTafreeh.com
may increase stimulates Increased by
motility of SI pancreatic acid in lumen;
and colon; bicarbonate decresed by
secretion and vagus
augments inhibits H
secretion secretion
Factors Increased Increased Increased Increased by Increased by Increased by
Affecting by: peptides, by peptides, by products fatty acids, fat in jejunum acid in lumen
Secretion distension, vagus, aminoacids, of food amino acids decreased by
cold, epinephrine fatty digestion, glucose vagus
decreased by acids (not acid in
Gastrointestinal Tract |
Time Needed
1st reading 20 mins
2nd look 12 mins
Salivary Secretion
• Total volume of saliva secreted per day- 800- 1200 ml
• pH of saliva- 7.0 (resting gland) to 8.0 (during active secretion).
• Three pairs of salivary glands- parotid, submandibular, sublingual; maximum
contribution by submandibular (70%); parotid- serous, submandibular- mixed,
sublingual- mucus.
• Three phases of salivary secretion- cephalic, oral, gastric; maximum contribution to
saliva is in the cephalic phase.
• Primary secretion from the acini is isotonic; as it flows through the duct sodium
and chloride are absorbed; potassium and bicarbonate are secreted- at low salivary
flow the secretion is hypotonic and at high salivary flow rate there is less time for
ionic composition to change, consequently, although still hypotonic saliva is closer to
isotonic (Final secretion from the salivary glands is always HYPOTONICQ).
• Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the saliva.
• Enzymes in saliva- salivary amylase and lingual lipase from the Ebner’s glands.
• Also present are mucins, IgA, lactoferrin that binds iron and is bacteriostatic and
proline rich compounds that protect the tooth enamel and bind toxic tannins.
• Control: PS stimulation causes vasodilatation and a profuse, watery secretion;
sympathetic stimulation→ vasoconstriction and secretion of small amounts of saliva
rich in organic constituents.
• Salivary secretion is controlled by parasympathetic reflexes and not by gastrointestinal
hormones.
Gastrointestinal Tract | 309
• Both sympathetic as well as parasympathetic stimulation increase salivary secretion;
parasympathetic stimulation causes watery saliva, relatively less in organic constituent
and causes vasodilatation (VIP mediated). Sympathetic stimulation causes secretion
of small amounts of saliva, rich in organic constituents, from the submaxillary glands.
It also causes vasoconstriction.
• Salivary juice gets modified as it flows through the salivary ducts. NaCl is absorbed
and KHCO3 is secreted into the duct.
• Ducts are impermeable to water, therefore, water does not follow sodium reabsorption.
• With increased flow rate, the ductal modification of the salivary juice decreases. With
decreased flow rate, less NaCl and more KHCO3 appears.
• The salivary juice is always hypotonic, because the duct is more permeable to NaCl
than it is to water
Salivary Secretion
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastric secretion
• Gastric secretion- 2.5L/day.
• 3 phases of gastric juice secretion: cephalic (neural), gastric (neural + hormonal),
intestinal (neural + hormonal), most important being the gastric phase.
• 3 agonists of the parietal cell- gastrin, histamine and acetylcholine.
• Gastrin and acetylcholine act by increasing the cytosolic calcium and histamine acts
by increasing the intracellular cAMPQ (important- these two pathways are synergistic
i.e., they have a more than additive effect on secretion).
310 | Physiology
Pancreatic secretions
• Daily secretion 1500mL/day.
• Highly alkaline (pH- up to 8.8).
• Pancreatic juice is very rich in enzymes.
Gastrointestinal Tract | 311
• Enzymes present in pancreatic juice are:
Pancreatic α-amylase
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Elastase
Carboxypeptidase A & B
Colipase
Pancreatic lipase
Phospholipase A2
AfraTafreeh.com
In acute pancreatitis, phospholipase A2 is activated within the pancreatic ducts and this causes the conversion
of PC in the bile to lyso- PC which causes disruption of pancreatic tissue and necrosis of surrounding fat).
AfraTafreeh.com
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Dietary carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are in the form of polysaccharides, disaccharides and
monosaccharides
• Dietary polysaccharides/ starches of animal origin:-
Glycogen- glucose molecules in 1:4α linkage with some chain branching produced
by 1:6α linkages
• Dietary starches of plant origin:-
Amylopectin- constitutes 80-90% of dietary starch; similar to glycogen but less
AfraTafreeh.com
branched
Amylose- straight chain with only 1:4α linkages
• Disaccharides in diet:-
Lactose/ milk sugar (glucose + galactose)
• Monosaccharides in diet:-
Fructose
Glucose
Absorption of Glucose
• By SGLT-1 on the luminal membrane.
• By GluT 2 on the basolateral membrane.
• Maximum rate of glucose absorption in GI tract is 120g/h.
• From the lumen to the enterocyte, the barrier to diffusion include glycocalyx, brush
border, unstirred layer, mucous coat, villous membrane.
AfraTafreeh.com
Absorption of Galactose
• Competes with Glucose for transport.
• Patients with congenital defect in the sodium/glucose cotransporter, glucose/ galactose
malabsorption causes severe diarrhea that is often fatal if glucose and galactose are
not promptly removed from the diet.
Absorption of fructose
• Absorption is independent of sodium.
• Absorption is by GluT-5 at the luminal membrane and by GluT-2 at basolateral
membrane (facilitated diffusion on both luminal and basolateral membrane).
GLUT 2 b-cells of islets of pancreas, liver, epithelial cells of small intestinal / renal tubules
GLUT 6
Glucose absorption
Site AfraTafreeh.com
Transport mechanism Insulin
*Glucose uptake in the liver is also affected by insulin but not via GLUT 4. Instead, insulin stimulates glucokinase in the liver
(glucokinase converts glucose into glucose -6- phosphate) and thus favors the diffusion into the liver cell.
*Insulin does not affect the absorption of glucose in: Kidney, intestine, RBC, brain.
Gastrointestinal Tract | 317
Concept 8.6 : Digestion and absorption of proteins
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Mechanism of digestion of proteins in the stomach and small intestine and the
enzymatic action at these sites
• Cellular mechanism of protein absorption
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastrointestinal Tract | 319
Concept 8.6 : Digestion and absorption of fats
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Mechanism of digestion of lipids in the mouth and small intestine and the enzymatic
action at these sites
• Importance of pancreatic lipase in fat digestion
• Role of bile acids in fat absorption
• Importance of micelle in fat absorption
• Cellular mechanism of lipid absorption
• SCFAs and their physiological importance
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2nd look 10 mins
Digestion of lipids
• Digestion in mouth is by
Lingual lipase, secreted by Ebner’s glands located on the dorsum of the tongue;
AfraTafreeh.com
• Digestion in duodenum/small intestine
Small intestine is the most important site of triglyceride digestion.
Pancreatic lipase
Pancreatic lipase acts on emulsified fats; it hydrolyzes the 1- and 3- bonds of
triglycerides- the principal products of digestion are 2- monoglyceride and two free fatty
acids; it is activated by colipase also secreted in pancreatic juice
Triglyceride = 3 fatty acids + glycerol
(FA = fatty acid)
i.e.,
CH2 OH - FA Ist bond
|
CHOH - FA 2nd bond
|
CH2 OH - FA 3rd bond
Pancreatic lipase splits 1st and 3rd bond to give a monoglyceride (1 fatty acid + glycerol)
i.e., CH2 OH
|
CHOH - FA
(2 monoglyceride)
|
CH2 OH
320 | Physiology
In Short,
Pancreatic lipase
Triglycerides 2 Monoglyceride + 2 fatty acids
There are 2 types of pancreatic lipase (depending on how they can get activated /
facilitated):
• Colipase – facilitated pancreatic lipase
• Bile – salt activated pancreatic lipase
Colipase in obtained from procolipase by action of trypsin in the intestinal lumen i.e.
Trypsin
Procolipase Colipase
Colipase binds to the –COOH terminal domain of pancreatic lipase,
facilitating the enzyme
Colipase – activated pancreatic lipase Bile – salt activated pancreatic lipase
Secreted in large amounts Represents only 4% of the total protein in the
pancreatic juice
10-60 times more active Less active
Can split only triglycerides Can catalyze the hydrolysis of cholesterol esters,
esters of fat – soluble vitamins, phospholipids and
triglycerides
AfraTafreeh.com
• Fats are emulsified in the small intestine by the detergent action of bile acids,
phosphatidylcholine and monoglycerides
• The ratio of bile acids : phosphatidylcholine : cholesterol is approximately 10:3:1;
deviations from this ratio may cause cholesterol to be precipitate, leading to formation
of gall stones
Micelles:
• These are cylindrical molecular aggregates that solubilize lipids and provide a
mechanism for transport to the enterocytes.
• Micelles have hydrophobic centers which contain fatty acids, monoglycerides and
cholesterol.
• Hydrophilic exterior is formed by phospholipids and bile salts radiating from the center
like the spokes of a wheel.
• Micelles move down their concentration gradient through the unstirred layer to the
brush border of the mucosal cells.
• Lipids diffuse out of the micelles, and a saturated aqueous solution of the lipids is
maintained in contact with the brush border of the mucosal cells.
• Most fat digestion occurs with the help of pancreatic enzymes.
Steatorrhea
Passage of fatty, bulky, clay coloured stools is k/a steatorrhea.
Causes:-
• Diseases that destroy exocrine pancreas, resulting in lipase deficiency
• Hyper secretion of gastric acid- acidic pH in the small intestine inhibits lipase activity
• Resection of terminal ileum or disease of this portion of the small intestine resulting in decreased or
defective reabsorption of bile acids
Celiac Disease
• This is an auto-immune disorder causing the malabsorption syndrome.
• Occurs in genetically predisposed individuals.
• In these patients gluten and closely related proteins (found in wheat, rye, barley and to a lesser extent
in oats- but not in rice or corn) cause intestinal T cells to mount an inappropriate immune response that
damages the intestinal epithelial cells, resulting in loss of villi and flattening of the mucosa, and causing
the malabsorption syndrome.
• Removal of grains containing gluten from the diet usually restores bowel function.
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastrointestinal Tract | 323
Concept 8.7 : Absorption of water and electrolytes
Learning Objectives: To understand
• Absorption of water in different segments of intestine
• Mechanism of water absorption is along an osmotic gradient
• Absorption of electrolytes
• Absorption of vitamins and minerals
Time Needed
1st reading 15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
• Cl- enters the cells from the ISF with the help of Na+- 2K+- Cl– cotransporters in their
basolateral membrane, and the Cl- is then secreted into the intestinal lumen via
channels regulated by protein kinases, such as protein kinase A (and hence cAMP).
K :
+
• There is net secretion of K+ in the colon; loss of ileal and colonic fluids in chronic
diarrhea can lead to hypokalemia
Calcium-
• 30-80% of the ingested calcium is absorbed.
• Site of maximum calcium absorption is the jejunum.
• 1,25- dihydroxycholecalciferol increases calcium absorption in the small intestine.
• Calcium absorption increases in Ca deficiency and decreases in Ca excess.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Ca2+ absorption is inhibited by phosphates and oxalates because these anions form
insoluble salts with Ca2+ in the intestine.
Time Needed
1 reading
st
10 mins
2nd look 06 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastrointestinal Tract | 327
Concept 8.10 : Reflexes of the GI tract
Learning Objectives: T o understand the stimuli, pathways and significance of different
GI reflexes, such as :
• Swallowing reflex
• Receptive relaxation of stomach
• Gastrocolic reflex
• Gastroileal refelx
• Enterogastric reflex
• Defecation reflex
• Mass action contractions
• Vomiting reflex
Time Needed
1 reading
st
15 mins
2 look
nd
10 mins
Swallowing
• Swallowing or deglutition is a reflex response initiated by the collection of oral contents
on the tongue.
• Afferent fibers- trigeminal, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
• Center- medulla AfraTafreeh.com
• Efferent- trigeminal, facial and hypoglossal nerves.
• Stages of the swallowing reflex are:-
Tongue pushes the food bolus to the back of the mouth
Soft palate is elevated to prevent food from entering the nasal passages.
Epiglottis covers the glottis to prevent food from entering the trachea and upper
Peristaltic ring of contraction behind the food pushes the food down the esophagus
at a speed of 4cm/s.
Gastrocolic reflex
• Presence of food in stomach causing defecation.
• Prominent in infants; abolished in adults.
• Vagovagal reflex
• Post prandial increase in tone and motility is maximum in descending colon > sigmoid
colon.
328 | Physiology
Gastroileal reflex
• When food leaves the stomach, the cecum relaxes and passage of chyme through the
ileocecal valve increases.
• Vagovagal reflex.
Enterogastric reflex
• Presence of food in the small intestine inhibits gastric acid and pepsin secretion and
decreases rate of gastric emptying via neural and hormonal mechanisms.
• Stimuli for this reflex:-
Duodenal distension.
Type of food- Food rich in fats cause the greatest prolongation of gastric emptying
as compared to food rich in proteins. Carbohydrate- rich food has the least effect
on gastric emptying time.
Acidity of gastric chyme- acidity of the gastric chyme inhibit gastric motility by
Defecation reflex
• First urge to defecate occurs at a rectal pressure of 15 mm Hg.
AfraTafreeh.com
• Expulsion of rectal contents occurs at a rectal pressure of 55 mm Hg.
• Centre for this reflex is the spinal cord.
• External anal sphincter is under voluntary control and is supplied by the external
pudendal nerve- this sphincter is in a state of tonic contraction, and moderate
distension in fact increases the force of its contraction.
• Internal anal sphincter is not under voluntary control but under the control of the
ANS.
• Sympathetic nerve supply to the internal anal sphincter is excitatory, whereas the
parasympathetic supply is inhibitory.
Vomiting
Vomiting center is in the reticular formation in the medulla and controls the different
components of the act of vomiting.
Gastrointestinal Tract | 329
Afferent impulses reach the vomiting center in the medulla from (i) mucosa in the
upper GI tract via visceral afferent pathways in the sympathetic nerves and vagi, (ii)
from the vestibular nuclei (mediating the nausea and vomiting of motion sickness) (iii)
diencephalon and limbic system (responsible for vomiting in response to emotionally
charged stimuli) (iv) chemoreceptor trigger zone, in the medulla can also initiate vomiting.
Drugs, such as, opiods, chemotherapeutic agents can stimulate the chemoreceptors.
Area postrema has 5-HT3 and D2 receptors, therefore, Serotonin, Dopamine and Dopamine agonists can
trigger vomiting.
5-HT3 antagonists, such as, Ondansetron, and D2 antagonists, such as, chlorpromazine and haloperidol are
effective anti-emetic agents.
AfraTafreeh.com
Time Needed
1st reading 10 mins
2 look
nd
06 mins
AfraTafreeh.com
Gastrointestinal Tract | 333
Important Tables (Active recall)
GI hormones
Hormone Secreted by (cells) Stimuli increasing Actions
secretion
Gastrin
CCK
Secretin
GIP
AfraTafreeh.com
GLP-1
Somatostatin
Motilin
VIP
AfraTafreeh.com