Introduction 1

INTRODUCTION

Intended learning outcomes

By the end of the lecture, the students will be able to:
 Recognize organization & composition of human body and cells and
highlighting the functions of cell membrane.
 Describe Distribution of water in the body Compartments and methods of
calculation.
 Identify homeostasis & control systems responsible for its maintenance.
What is physiology?
- Physiology is the study of the function of organs and systems of living things.
- Human physiology is concerned with the way the human body works and
integrated.

Structure of human body

- The human body is made up of 75-100 trillion cells.
- Collection of cells with similar properties forms tissues (e.g. muscular tissue…)
- Different tissues combine to form organs (e.g. heart, brain, liver).
- Organs of complementary functions constitute the different systems (e.g.
cardiovascular system, nervous system).

What is the composition of human body? (Fig 1)

100%

80%
minerals
60%
fat
40% protein
20% water

0%
male female

Fig.1: composition of the human body.

- The total body water (TBW) constitutes 60% of the total body weight, in a normal
adult male.
- In infants it is about 75% and is less than 60% in adult female and obese people
due to high content of fat in their bodies.
 2 Introduction

Distribution of water in the body Compartments: (Fig 2)

The TWB is divided into the following:
- Intracellular fluid compartment (lCF): it is the water inside the cells. It
accounts for 2/3 of the TBW or 40% of TB weight.
- Extracellular fluid compartment (ECF): it is the water outside the cells and
is 1/3 of TBW or 20% of TB weight.

ECF is distributed as:

a. Intravascular fluid (IVF): 5% inside vessels called the plasma in the
circulatory vessels, arteries, capillaries, veins and lymphatics.
b. Interstitial fluid (ISF): 15% outside the vessels bathing the cells.
N.B: The total blood volume is about 8% of body weight, which includes the
plasma, and the cellular elements of the blood.

Fig.2: Different compartments of body water.

(ICF: intracellular fluid, ISF: interstitial fluid, IVF: intravascular fluid)

Factors affecting TBW

A) Physiological:
1) Amount of fat:(degree of obesity)
• Decrease water content in obesity
• Increase water content in leanness (thinness)
2) Sex: females have lower content of water than males (due to ↑
obesity in females)
3) Age: TBW % progressively decreases with age (aging is usually
associated with an increased percentage of the body weight being
fat)
B) Pathological:
• Dehydration
• Overhydration
Introduction 3

Difference in composition between ICF & ECF:

ECF
ICF
Plasma ISF

Cations (mmol / L)
Na+ 10 145 150

K+ 155 4.5 4.0

Ca++ 0.001 2.5 1.5

Mg++ 13 1.0 1.0

Anions (mmol / L)
Cl- 3 115 110

HCO3- 10 28 27

HPO3- 50 1 1

Glucose 1 4-6 4-6

Protein ratio 4 1 0-1

Osmolarity (mOsm/L) 300 300 300

Measurement of volume of water in the different compartments:

This is done by using Fick's principle.
 A known amount of an indicator substance is injected intravenously.
 The indicator is inert, non- toxic and not utilized by the tissues.
 Time is allowed for the indicator to diffuse uniformly in water.
 Then the concentration of the indicator is determined in plasma.
 The volume of water in which the indicator was distributed is calculated:
Volume of compartment = the amount of the indicator injected
/concentration of indicator in plasma
Applications:
1 - Determination of total body water: Heavy water (D2O) or antipyrine are used.
They distribute themselves in water in all compartments of the body.
2- Determination of ECF volume: Inulin or Na thiocyanate are used. They are
distributed in extracellular water only.

3- Determination of plasma volume: Evan's blue dye or plasma proteins labeled

with radioactive iodine are used. They are distributed in plasma only.
4 - Determination of ICF volume: Can’t be determined directly.
It is calculated by: TBW – ECF.
5 - Determination of ISF volume: Can’t be determined directly.
It is calculated by: ECF – plasma volume
 4 Introduction

Homeostasis:
- Homeostasis means keeping the conditions in the internal environment constant.
The internal environment is the interstitial fluid that surrounds the cells. Most
of the body systems work to maintain homeostasis.

Importance of homeostasis:
Homeostasis is Essential for life. Cells are capable of living, growing and function
within narrow limits of change in the concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
glucose, ions, amino and fatty acids, temperature, pH, arterial blood pressure
……..
Homeostasis ensures that chemical and physical structure of the internal
environment is kept constant in spite of external or internal changes.
Failure of homeostasis often leads to diseases and death.

Homeostasis includes two exchange processes: (Fig 3)

Blood picks up food from the alimentary tract and oxygen from the respiratory system
a- First exchange through the cell membrane.
 Living cells take up oxygen and food materials from the interstitial fluid.
 Cells give up CO2 and waste products.
b- A second exchange occurs through the capillary wall.
 Oxygen and food materials diffuse from the blood to the interstitial fluid.
 Waste products diffuse to the blood.
Finally, Blood picks up the waste products to be excreted by the kidneys.

The temperature of ECF is maintained constant by a balance between the

mechanisms of heat production and those of heat loss.
 The pH of ECF is maintained constant by different buffers in the body.

Fig 3: Exchange processes that help to maintain homeostasis

Introduction 5

Homeostasis is maintained by control systems which detect and respond to

changes in internal environment.
Components of control system:
1. Stimulus.
2. Receptor.
3. Control center
4. Effector organ(s).
5. Feedback mechanism.

• Stimulus The stimulus is something that results in changes within the system
involving the variable. The stimulus represents that the variable has moved away from
its normal range, initiating the process of homeostasis.
• Receptors the receptor is the sensing unit of homeostasis, where it monitors
and responds to the changes in the body. Which then sends the information to the
control unit.
• An integrating centre which fixes the set point of the system (e.g. body
temperature).The set point will be the optimum condition under which the system
operates.
• Effectors which bring the system back to the set point. Effectors can be
muscles, organs, glands, or other similar structures that are activated as a result of the
signal from the control unit.

 Negative feedback mechanisms

Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback
mechanisms. These mechanisms change the variable back to its
original state or “ideal value”.
 Positive feedback:
The stimulus progressively increases the response.
Positive feedback mechanism is important in accelerating processes
that must proceed to completion rapidly.
e.g.: Blood clotting & uterine contractions during childbirth.
6 Introduction

The Cell

- The cell is the structural unit of various tissues and organs in the
human body. It consists of a mass of protoplasm surrounded by the
cell membrane.
- The protoplasm comprises:
1- The cytoplasm 2- The cell organelles 3- The nucleus
- The structure of the cell varies markedly according to the function it
performs.

The cell membrane

- The cell membrane surrounds the cell completely.

- It is a very thin, elastic and semipermeable membrane.
- It is composed mainly of proteins and lipids
- The membranes are dynamic structures and their constituents are
being constantly renewed at different rates.
- Under the electron microscope, the basic structure of cell membrane
is a lipid bilayer, only 2 molecules of phospholipids thick with
globular masses of membrane proteins.
Introduction 7

Structure of the cell membrane

The lipid bilayer is for the flexibility and selective permeability of the
cell membrane.
The cholestrol molecules affect the permeability of the membrane
and give toughness to it.
The membrane carbohydrates occur in the form of glycoproteins and
glycolipids. as recognition sites & attach cells together.
What are the functions of the protein in the cell membrane??
1. receptors.
2. channels.
3. carriers.
4. enzymes.
5. Markers.

References:
- Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology.
- Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology.