CHAPTER 2:

MATHEMATICAL
LANGUAGES AND SYMBOLS
 VARIABLES

• A variable is a symbol, usually a letter that holds a value that may increase or
decrease over time or takes different situation.
• It may be represented by letters x, y and z (which are common generic
symbols used for variables).

(https://mathinsight.org/definition/variable)
The variables in an expression or equation may be categorized into
different types:

According to Function Relationship:

1. Independent Variable
• called as the predictor variable
• it is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you
are trying to measure.

2. Dependent Variable
• called as the criterion variable
• It is something that depends on other factors.

(https://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/graph/variables.asp)
Examples:

The academic performance of students in Mathematic (y) depends on

their study habits and their attitudes towards the subject (x).

Independent Variable - Student’s study habits and attitudes (x)

Dependent Variable - academic performance of students in
Mathematics (y)
According to Continuity of Values:

1. Continuous Variables
• variables that can be expressed in decimals

Examples: Price of commodities, grades, height

2. Discrete or Discontinuous Variables

• Variables that can’t be expressed in decimals

Examples: number of students, cars, houses

 SETS

• Set theory deals with logic involving group of objects that are
most of the time have commonalities among them.
• Set theory is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with
groups of objects and numbers known as sets. (https://study.com/academy/lesson/set-
theory-definition-application.html)

• It is considered as the basis of all the other mathematics.

Basic concepts in Set Theory:
1. Set
• a well-defined collection of distinct objects
• set can be denoted by a capital letter

Example: A = {Even numbers}, Q = {Primary colors}, D = {0, 2, 5}

2. Element
• the object that make up a set
• enclosed by braces and separated by commas

Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {2, 4, 6, …), {red, blue, yellow}

3. Universal Set
• a set containing all the existing elements
• all the sets are subset of the universal set
• usually denoted as U

4. Order of the set

• describe the number of elements inside a given set

Example:
{1, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61} Order = 6
{pants, shorts, trousers} Order = 3
Type of Sets:
1. Empty Set
• a set that has no element in it
• also called as null set

2. Finite Set
• consist of countable numbers of elements
• has a determinate number of elements

Example: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

3. Infinite Set
• has indeterminate number of elements

Example: {even numbers}

4. Proper Subset of a Set

• a set whose elements are found in a larger set
• part of a larger set

Example: Set = {Odd numbers} Subset = {1, 3, 11}

5. Improper Subset of a Set
• a set is an improper subset of a given set if they are equal sets
• null set is an improper subset of any set

6. Disjoint Sets
• two or more sets with no common elements

Example: A = {vowels} and B = {consonants}

7. Joint Sets
• two or more sets with at least one common elements

Example: A = {composite numbers} and B = {odd numbers}

8. Equivalent Sets
• two or more sets with same number of elements

Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

9. Equal Sets
• two or more sets with the same elements

Example: {red, blue, yellow} and {primary colors}

BASIC OPERATIONS IN SETS:

Union of Sets
• union of two sets is simply the elements resulted from combining the two sets
• Union is denoted by ∪.

Example:

A B

A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11} B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

Intersection of Sets
• Intersection of two sets is simply the elements that are common to the two sets
• Intersection is denoted by the symbol ∩

Example:

A B

A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11} B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

A ∩ B = {2}
Difference of Sets:
• The difference of two sets is the elements resulted when the elements common two, the two sets
are subtracted from the minuend set

Example:

A–B B–A

A B A B

A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11} B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

A – B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11}

B – A = {4, 6, 8, 10}
Complement (U’)
• Complement of sets is the elements found in the universal set that is not found in any if the subsets of the
universal set.
• The other way of saying this is that U’ = U – (A U B)

Example:

A B

A = { odd numbers less than 15} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}

B = {prime numbers less than 15} = (2, 3,5, 7, 11, 13}
U = {numbers less than 15} = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ,9 , 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
U’ = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
• A relation is a collection of pair of information in such a way
that for every input there is a single or multiple corresponding
output.
• A function is any set of data in which a given input can only have
one output.
• It is not necessary that every input must have unique output, but it is a must that an
input must have not have two or more output as the same time.
A function may be a relation falling under the following
condition:

• Many to one – there maybe multiple inputs with the same

output

• One to One – every input has a corresponding unique output

Example # 2
• A is a subset of B and B is a subset f C. identify the following:

a. Draw the diagram of the given condition.

b. Shade the region that describes the expression (B U A)’
c. Shade the region that describes the expression (B ∩ A)
d. Shade the region that describes the expression (B – A)
e. Shade the region that describes the expression (C –B)
f. Shade the region that describes the expression (C ∩ B)
 Solution:
(a) Note that:

• A is a subset of B. therefor,all the elements inside Aa are also inside B.

• B is a subset of C. therefore, all the elements inside B are a;se inside C
C
B

A
(b) (B U A) is equal to B since A is just a subset of B.

A
There, ( B U A)’ is B’ and is described by the diagram below:

A
 ( C ) ( B ∩ A) is equal to A since A is a subset of B.
therefore, all the elements of A are B all the elements in A
are common to B.
C

A
Therefore, ( B ∩ A)’ is equal to A’ and is
described by the diagram below:

A
( d ) ( B – A) is equal to the elements in B that are not
found in A and is show by are figure below

A
Therefore, (B-A)’ is described by the diagram
below

C
B

A
( e ) ( C –B) is equal to the elements in C that are not
found in B and is show by the figure below:

A
Therefore, (C-B)’ is equal to B and is describes
by the diagram below:

A
(f) (C∩B) is equal to B since B is a subset of C.
therefore, all the elements of B are in C and all
the elements in B are common to C.
C

A
Therefore, (C∩B)’ is equal to B’ and is
described by the diagram below: