Diesel Engine Components

Main parts
 structural parts (stationary)
 running parts

1
Structural parts
PURPOSE:
- to support running parts
- to keep them in position and line
- to provide jackets, sumps, etc., and to providepassages
for cooling water, lube oil, etc.
- to form protective casing for running parts
- to support auxiliaries (valves, camshaft, turbo blowers)

2
Running parts
PURPOSE
- to convert the power of combustion in the cylinders to
mechanical work

3
Structural parts
 Bedplate
 Frame
 Engine or cylinder block
 Tie bolts
 Cylinder liners
 Cylinder head or cover

4
Major running parts
 piston
 piston rod
 crosshead
 connecting rod
 crankshaft &
 flywheel

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6
7
Bed plate
 To support the dynamic load of the running gear

 To support the crankshaft and hold it in perfect alignment

 To distribute the static and dynamic load generated by

running engine onto the ship structure

 To collect the crankcase lube oil and transfer it to the sump

tank from where the lube oil pump can take suction

 To fasten the engine to the tank top transmitting propeller

thrust to the hull structure

 To support the static load of stationary engine frame and

blocks
8
Bed plate
 The Bedplate is the foundation on which engine is
built.
 It must be rigid enough to support the weight of the
rest of the engine.
 It must be flexible enough to hog and sag with the
foundation plate to which it is attached and which
forms part of the ships structure.
 If the bedplate was too rigid, then as the hull flexed,
the holding down bolts, which secure the engine into
the ship would be likely to break, and there would be a
danger of the bedplate cracking.

9
Bed plate
 The bedplate consists of two longitudinal girders
which run the length of the engine.
 Connecting these longitudinal girders are the
transverse girders which are positioned between each
crankshaft throw, and either side of the thrust collar.
 Built into the transverse girders
are the main bearing pockets
for the crankshaft to run in.

10
Bed plate
 On the small bore engines, the bedplate can be made
from cast iron as a single casting.

 Larger engines have a fabricated bedplate.

 This means it is welded together from steel sections,

steel castings and plate.

 The steel is to Classification Society specifications and

is a low carbon steel with a maximum carbon content
of 0.23%.

11
Bed plate
 Earlier fabricated bedplates had box section
longitudinal girders and box section fabricated
transverse girders.

 Problems were encountered with cracking of the

transverse girders, which increased as engine powers
and crankshaft throws got larger.

12
Bed plate
 The modern bedplate is constructed from fabricated
longitudinal girders with cast steel transverse sections
containing the bearing pockets and tie bolt holes
welded into place.
 After manufacture,
the bedplate is
stress relieved,
the bearing pockets
are line bored
and landing surfaces
machined.

13
Bed plate
 The bedplate should be inspected regularly for
evidence of cracking.
 This can occur in the welds joining the transverse
girders to the longitudinals,
and under the bearing pockets,
where the cracks can be radial
or follow the line of the pocket.
 Apart from faulty manufacturing
techniques, causes can be
uneven loading/ overloading
of engine units, loose tie bolts
and loose holding down bolts
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Details of Construction
Longitudinal girders, two in number, form the side walls and
a set of I-beams or box girders strengthened with stiffeners
form the transverse members
Transverse strength girders house the main bearings
Lower part of the bedplate has flanges for seating onto the
hull formation
Bedplate is stress relieved by heating in a furnace and slow
cooling
Stiffeners and webs add rigidity, access holes help reduce the
overall weight
Sheet metal tray welded to the underside of the bedplate
collects the draining lube oil and empties it into the drain
tank below through a strainer at each crank pit
15
Bed plate

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Bed plate

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Bed plate

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Bed plate
Forces applied to the bedplates:
 Firing load from cylinders.
 Side thrust from guide faces.
 Unbalanced inertia forces in the running gear.
 Weight of engine structure & running gear.
 Torque reaction from propeller.
 Hull deflections due to hogging, sagging, racking.
 Vibration due to torque variations, shock loading.
 Thermal stresses due to atmospheric and lubricating
oil temperature changes.

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Bed plate

In addition to withstanding forces due to the above

causes,, the bedplate should provide.
 An oil tight chamber to contain the oil splash & spray
of the forced lubricating oil system.
 A drainage grid to filter out large particles before they
enter the oil sump or drain tank.
 A housing for the thrust bearing.

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Bed plate
Bedplate Materials:
1. Fabricated mild steel. Slow speed engines Sulzer,
Doxford.
2. Cast iron. Medium speed engine (small).
3. Composite type. Fabricated mild steel longitudinal
girders and cast steel transverse girders. Engines that use
above are B & W, G.M.T. Mitsubishi, MAN, Sulzer.

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Bed plate
 The all welded form of construction gives the lightest
bedplate (about 25% less than C.I.) with the greatest
strength against shock loads & the highest guarantee of
manufacture.
 It is also the easiest to repair.
 However it possesses poor vibration damping
characteristics & due to the multitude of welds is liable to
cracking.
 To ensure freedom from distortion the welding sequence
must be correct and after welding the bedplate requires
stress relieving by heating to 600*C and holding for 1
hour/inch (25 mm) of plate thickness.
 Normal plate thickness is 1½” - 2” (35-50mm).
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Bed plate

 The size of the bedplate is controlled by lifting

equipment available and the size of the stress-
relieving furnace.
 Because of these factors plates are normally made
in at least two parts.
 Transverse girders are normally cut from a single
plate and supporting ribs welded on below the
bearing pockets.
 Pockets are usually of cast steel.

23
Bed plate
Cast Iron:
 It is not used for large bedplates any more as it is difficult to
produce a defect free casting.
 Frequently used for small engines however.
 The main advantage is the material’s ability to absorb
vibration, which limits vibration transmission through the
engine & reduces the frequency of cracking in the bedplate.
 Any cracks are difficult to repair.
 The material has a low tensile strength and is usually
supported by tie-bolts.
 Examples: Only small medium or highspeed engines use
this type of bedplate.

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Bed plate
 Composite construction involves fabricated mild steel for
the longitudinal girders and cast steel for the transverse
girders.
 This system has the advantage of a continuous transverse
girder with the bearing pocket integral.
 Strengthening ribs can be cast in and the complete unit
stress relieved before bolting or welding to the longitudinal
girders.
 The cast steel must be of weldable quality, up to 0.23% C.
 The cast steel has a higher resistance to cracking compared
to fabricated mild steel lack of welds.
 Examples: B & W, Doxford, Mitsubishi engines.

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Bed plate
Faults found in Bedplates:
1. Cracks.
2. Oil leaks.
3. Loose chocks.
4. Loose ‘A’ frames.

Cracks usually occur:

i) Under bearing pockets on fabricated mild steel bedplates.
ii) Radially around tie bolt & frame boltholes.
iii) Between longitudinal and transverse girders.
iv) Around ‘lightening’ holes.
v) At the base of serrated seating for main bearing keeps.
26
Bed plate

Causes may be:

a) Bearing wear & therefore overloading.
b) Slack tie bolts.
c) Vibration.
d) Poor welding or stress relieving.
e) Stress risers on welds -(Coarse welds should be
ground).

27
Bed plate
Repair :
 For mild steel & cast steel crack chipped out and
welded, but care should be taken to ensure a minimum
distortion by determining the optimum welding
sequence.
 For Cast Iron the crack should be arrested by drilling a
small hole, sketch or photograph the crack for future
assessment.
 The crack could be supported by a mild steel doubling
plate, bolted on, if serious.

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Bed plate

Oil leaks:
i) Sump pan.
ii) Doors and casings.
iii) Crank case relief valves.
iv) Bedplate cracks.

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Bed plate

 Chocks may fret if the holding down bolts get lack

and due to the movement of bed plate chocks ‘bed’
into the tank top.
 As a temporary measure the chock should be shimmed
up and the bolt hardened down and as soon as possible
the chock should be removed, the tank top faced up by
grinding and a new, thicker chock prepared and re-
bedded.

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Bed plate
Bedplate inspection:
 Cracks.
 Corrosion.
This may be due to moisture or acidic compounds in the
oil. If the bedplate has been painted, remove flaking
paint and check for pitting. After that do not repaint.
 Cleanliness.
Check for sludge and carbon building up in corners,
under bearings, behind bearing cover
studs, etc.

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Holding down bolts

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35
Holding down bolts

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ENGINE CHOCKS
 These are needed between the bedplate and tank top
to ensure that any variations in the surface of the tank
top does not cause misalignment.
 Up to 200 chocks per engine may be fitted.
 They also permit any chaffing or fretting to be repaired
by adjustment of individual chocks and any
subsequent distortions after fitting (due to settlement)
to be corrected.

37
ENGINE CHOCKS
 End chocks are fitted at each end of the long girder to
position the engine, absorb collision loads and in
 the case of the integral thrust block, absorb propeller
thrust & propeller excited vibrations.
 Side chocks are needed to absorb side loads due to
components of unbalanced reciprocating forces and
 thermal expansion. They also prevent chaffing of the
supporting chocks and tank top and also help the
 holding down bolts resist the lateral forces when the
vessel is rolling.
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ENGINE CHOCKS
 Chocks are usually made of cast iron or steel.
 Cast Iron chocks are popular because:
1. Easy to form.
2. High compressive strength.

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ENGINE CHOCKS
Epoxy resin is increasing in popularity and now widely
used for small, medium & large engines.
The compound has the following advantages:
i) Elimination of fitting & machining.
ii) Increased support as large areas of the bedplate can
be used.
iii) Elimination of breakage, fretting and slackness.
iv) Improved resilience, which absorbs vibrations,
reduces noise and gives greater ductility.

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ENGINE CHOCKS
 The compound is suitable for any bedplate, which can
be fitted with a sealing dam to contain the compound
while it is setting (may take up to 24 hrs with some
heating necessary).
 It can be used on new engines or as a replacement on
old engines.
 Where the chock is deep, steel rollers are added to the
resin chock to increase strength & durability.

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Holding down bolts
Fitting of engine chocks:
 Process is more or less similar for cast iron, steel or
resin chocks.
1. Bedplate is aligned on the tank top using temporary
chocks, jackscrews or wedges.
2. Crankshaft is budded & deflections taken after the
engine is fully built up and the vessel is floating in even
keel with all transmission shafts in place.

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Holding down bolts
3. Metal chocks are machined slightly oversize and then
hand filed and scrapped. It is bedded in its place and
fitted. Minimum 70 to 80% bedding is required. For
bedding purpose the chock could be tapered up to 1/100
from outside to inside.
4. For Resin Chocks the surfaces are cleaned, a dam
prepared around the chock area, holding down bolts
placed in position and greased and all surfaces sprayed
with a releasing agent. Resin is mixed and poured into
position. When solid, temporary support can be
removed and after 24 hours, holding down bolts
tensioned. A 1μm per mm of chock thickness is allowed
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Holding down bolts
5. Crankshaft deflections are retaken to confirm
alignment. The deflection reading should be the same at
the end of fitting the chocks as it was when taken before
fitting as per step 2.
 A third material, rubber is used for some installations;
usually high speed diesel engines in small vessels.
These are resilient mountings and fitted to reduce
vibration transmission from engine to hull or vice
versa.

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Holding down bolts
Modern method of holding down bolt arrangement:
 The traditional method suffers the problem of fretting
cast iron chocks and bolt failure particularly under
slow speed diesel machinery.
 In modern days to eliminate the above problem long
elastic bolts with extended collars are used.
 These bolts possess high resilience and are highly
stressed when tightened.
 As such when strained while in service, there will be
less reversal of stress which results in reduced
possibility of fatigue failure.
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Holding down bolts
 When these bolts are tightened and slightly stretched,
the bedplate, chock and tank top seating are under
compression.
 When holding down bolts come under strain while in
service, the parts under compression expand and the
mating surfaces of the chocks remain in contact with
the bedplate and tank top seating.
 Fretting is hence avoided.
 Their cost is considerable and an additional £40,000
for the bolts of a 6-cylinder engine is typical.

46
Holding down bolts
Epoxy Resin chock:
 ‘Chockfast’ system needs only simple bolts and nuts to
give permanent engine security.
 It is claimed that the use of pour able resin chocks
overcomes bolt stretching, slack nuts and bolt failure,
while also offering considerable economies when
erecting the engine since perfect matching takes place
between engine bed-plate and the un-machined tank-
top seating.

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48
A-Frame
 These carry the crosshead guides and support the
engine entablature (the cylinder block).
 On older engines, the A-frames were individually
erected on the bedplate directly above the transverse
girders.
 When boxed in with plating they formed the
crankcase.
 The trend nowadays is to build the frame box as a
separate fabricated construction and then, after stress
relieving and machining the mating surfaces, to
mount it on the bedplate.
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A-Frame

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A-Frame
Lowering the A frame onto the
bedplate.
A small amount of
jointing compound
is used to ensure
an oil tight joint

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A-Frame
When the frames are aligned
on the bed plate they are
secured together by drilling
and reaming and using
fitted bolts.

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A-Frame
Cracking in A frames can occur
leading to misalignment and
excessive wear of the running gear.

Cracks can start from welds, sharp

changes in section and where
strengthening stringers are
terminated sharply.

Repairs can involve cutting the crack

out, grinding and rewelding.

The danger is that after repair there

may still be misalignment. 53
A-Frame
 In old engines the frames were of cast iron and made
hollow to reduce weight without reducing rigidity.
 The frames or columns were held in compression by
tie-bolts.
 These frames were later fabricated from mild steel
tube and plate with guides of cast iron bolted onto the
frames.
 This type of arrangement uses individual frames at
each transverse girder position of the bedplate with
the longitudinal spaces between frames filled by plates
bolted to the frames.

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A-Frame
 The structure is strong and rigid in the transverse
plane but relatively flexible longitudinally.
 This makes oil tight fixing of the side covers difficult
unless very heavy covers or longitudinal stiffness are
used.
 It also produces a weak structure if exposed to internal
pressure from a crankcase explosion and will allow
alignment of the cylinder blocks to the bedplate to
vary in relation to ship movement.

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A-Frame
 The ‘A’-frame construction is now being abandoned in
favor of longitudinal girder construction.
 Improved methods of prefabrication which can be
relied upon to produce large, distortion free units has
allowed longitudinal girders to be manufactured so
that the longitudinal stiffness of the structure can be
increased without altering the transverse stiffness.
 This also contributes to the bedplate stiffness and
reduces effects of hull hogging and sagging.
 ‘MAN’ engine manufactures claim that the bedplate
only contributes 17% to the overall stiffness compared
to 60% for the traditional ‘A’-frame construction.
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A-Frame
 In the ‘Sulzer’ engine the fabricated longitudinals form a
sandwich by enclosing a cast iron centerpiece at each
transverse girder spaces.
 The cast iron centerpiece forms the crosshead guides.
The structure is bolted together.
 In the ‘B&W’ engine the entablature retains the ‘A’
transverse section but both longitudinals and transverse
components are fabricated into a box form.
 The guide faces are bolted to the transverse components.
 The entablature is formed in two pieces connected at the
camshaft drive position at the middle of the engine.

57
The Entablature
 The entablature is the name given to the cylinder block
which incorporates the scavenge air space and the
cooling water spaces.
 It forms the housing to take the cylinder liner and is
made of cast iron.
 The castings are either for individual cylinders which
after machining on the mating surfaces are bolted
together to form the cylinder beam, or they may be cast
in multi - cylinder units, which are then bolted together.
 The underside of the cylinder beam is machined and
then it is aligned on the A-frames and fastened in
position using fitted bolts.
58
The Entablature
It is important to remember that

the fitted bolts used to bolt the
entablature, A frames and
Bedplate together are for
alignment and location purposes
only.
They are not designed to resist
the firing forces which will tend
to separate the three
components.
This is the job of the tie bolts.

59
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
• When the piston is just after top dead centre the
pressure inside the cylinder can rise as high as 140 bar
• This acts downwards through the piston rod and con-
rod, pushing the crankshaft down into the bearing
pockets.
• At the same time, the pressure acts upwards, trying to
lift the cylinder cover.
• The cylinder head studs screwed into the entablature
prevent this happening and so this upward acting force
tries to lift the entablature from the frames and the
frames from the bedplate, putting the fitted location
bolts into tension. 60
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 As the piston moves down the cylinder the pressure in
the cylinder falls, and then rises again as the piston
changes direction and moves upwards on the
compression stroke.
 This means that the fitted bolts are under are cyclic
stress.
 Because they are not designed to withstand such
stresses they would soon fail with disastrous
consequences.

61
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 To hold the bedplate , frames
and entablature firmly together
in compression, and to transmit
the firing forces back to the
bedplate, long tie bolts
are fitted through these
three components and
then tightened
hydraulically.

62
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 Tie rod is a long strong rod with bolts at both the ends.
 They are provided for fatigue strength and to prevent
fretting.
 These are positioned at each of the transverse girders,
keeping the components as a whole in compression.
 They helps to reduce the bending stresses being
transferred to the transverse girders which are
supported by the main bearings.
 Correct tensioning of these bolts are important and
this should be checked regularly in accordance with
the engine manufacturers instruction.
63
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 The excessive bending moment in the transverse
girders can be prevented by positioning the tie bolts
close to the Centre of crank shaft.

64
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 Operating the engine with loose tie bolts will cause the
fitted bolts holding the bedplate, frame and
entablature in alignment to stretch and break.
 The machined mating surfaces will rub together,
corrode and wear away (this is known as fretting).
 Once this has happened the alignment of the engine
running gear will be destroyed.
 Loose tie bolts will also cause the transverse girders to
bend which could lead to cracking, and main bearing
misalignment.

65
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 Once fretting between the mating surfaces has
occurred, then tightening of the tie bolts will pull the
engine out of alignment.
 The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner, and the
stuffing box will no longer be in line and excessive
wear will occur.
 Because the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down
squarely they will be subject to forces which may lead
to them breaking.
 If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to
remove the entablature or/and frame and machine the
fretted mating surfaces (a very costly exercise). 66
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 Tie bolts can break in service.
 To reduce the risk of this happening they must be
checked for tightness; not overtightened; and the
engine not overloaded.
 If a breakage does occur, this is not disastrous, as the
engine can be operated with care for a limited period
(the load on the engine may have to be reduced).
 The position of the fracture will dictate how the
broken pieces are removed.

67
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 However in the worst possible scenario where the bolt
is broken at mid length, then one solution is to lift out
the top half, remove the bottom nut, and then feed a
loop of braided wire cable (about 7mm diameter)
down the tie bolt tube, down the side of the broken tie
bolt and once it emerges at the bottom a supporting
piece can be fitted to the wire enabling the broken tie
bolt to be withdrawn.

68
The Causes of Tie-Rod Breaking
 Tie rods are not properly tightened
 The material and threading of tie rod are under rated
and not properly machined.
 Aging of tie rod leading to failure or breakage.
 Tie rods bolts are over tightened by hydraulic pressure
crossing its elasticity limit.
 Engine is over loaded or peak pressures of the
cylinders are very high.
 Foundation bolts have become loose or chocks are
damaged leading to transmission of vibration in to tie
rods.
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The Causes of Tie-Rod Breaking
 Scavenge fire loosen the rods as they pass through the
scavenge space and the heat leads to the expansion of
the rods.
 If the ship face very heavy weather, the fluctuation in
the engine load may cause loosening or breakage of
the rods.
 Previous fretting of engine mating surface.

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The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 When checking the tightness of tie bolts, refer to
manufacturers instructions for tightening pressures
for the jacks and the order in which to carry out the
check.
 The normal order is to start at the centre and work
outwards checking the bolts in pairs.
 The MC -C engine with its twin tie bolts is an
exception, starting at the fwd end and working aft.
 If the engine is fitted with bearing jacking bolts, then
these must be slackened before tightening the tie
bolts.
 Any pinch bolts fitted must also be slackened off. 71
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
 Large tie-bolts are tightened with an adaptation of a
hydraulic jack which loads the tie bolts in tension .
 The tie-bolt nut is usually drilled to take a toggle bar or
slotted to take a hook spanner , and when the correct pull
is on the tie-bolt the tie-nut is pulled up hand-tight : the
pressure in the jack is then released leaving the tie-bolt
tight .
 The load placed on the tie-bolt by hydraulic jack is
controlled by hand-pump pressure , which is indicated on
the pump pressure gauge .
 The pressure to be applied is given in the engine
instruction book and this pressure should not be exceeded
72
The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods


73
Cylinder Jacket
 Lack of cooling would not only cause a non
uniform heating of these components but also
would lead to their overheating above the
permissible limit , giving rise to high thermal
stresses.
 To overcome this problem of overheating of engine
components an adequate cooling should be
provided by some means of heat exchange.


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Cylinder Jacket
 A cylinder block (jacket) is provided around the
liner in which an adequate medium is supplied to
exchange the heat with the engine components.


75
The Cylinder Liner
 The cylinder liner forms the cylindrical space in which
the piston reciprocates.
 The reasons for manufacturing the liner separately
from the cylinder block (jacket) in which it is located
are as follows;
- The liner can be manufactured using a superior
material to the cylinder block. While the cylinder
block is made from a grey cast iron, the liner is
manufactured from a cast iron alloyed with chromium,
vanadium and molybdenum.
- (cast iron contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying
elements help resist corrosion and improve the wear
resistance at high temperatures.) 76
The Cylinder Liner
 - The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore
may have to be replaced. The cylinder jacket lasts the
life of the engine.
 - At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than
the jacket. The liner will expand more and is free to
expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast
as one piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses
would be set up, causing fracture of the material.
 - Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting,
the more difficult to produce a homogenous casting
with low residual stresses.
77
The Cylinder Liner
 The Liner will tend to get very hot during engine
operation as the heat energy from the burning fuel is
transferred to the cylinder wall.
 So that the temperature
can be kept within
acceptable limits
the liner is cooled.

78
The Cylinder Liner
 Cylinder liners from older lower powered engines had
a uniform wall thickness and the cooling was achieved
by circulating cooling water through a space formed
between liner and jacket.
 The cooling water space was sealed from the scavenge
space using 'O' rings and a telltale passage between the
'O' rings led to the outside of the cylinder block to
show a leakage.


79
The Cylinder Liner
 As a result of increasing the diameter, if the thickness
of the material is increased, then it stands to reason
that the working surface of the liner is going to
increase in temperature because the cooling water is
now further away.
 Increased surface temperature means that the material
strength is reduced, and the oil film burnt away,
resulting in excessive wear and increased thermal
stressing.

80
The Cylinder Liner
 The solution is to bring the cooling water closer to the
liner wall, and one method of doing this without
compromising the strength of the liner is to use
tangential bore cooling.
 Holes are bored from the underside of the flange
formed by the increase in liner diameter.
 The holes are bored upwards and at an angle so that
they approach the internal surface of the liner at a
tangent.
 Holes are then bored radially around the top of the
liner so that they join with the tangentially bored
holes. 81
The Cylinder Liner


82
The Cylinder Liner

83
The Cylinder Liner
 On some large bore, long stroke engines it was found
that the undercooling further down the liner was
taking place.
 The hydrogen in the fuel combines with the oxygen
and burns to form water. Normally this is in the form
of steam, but if it is cooled it will condense on the liner
surface and wash away the lube oil film.
 Fuels also contain sulphur. This burns in the oxygen
and the products combine with the water to form
sulphuric acid.
 If this condenses on the liner surface (below 140º) then
corrosion can take place. 84
The Cylinder Liner
 Once the oil film has been destroyed then wear will
take place at an alarming rate.
 One solution is to insulate the outside of the liner so
that there was a reduction in the cooling effect.
 On the latest engines
the liner is only cooled
at the very top.

85
The Cylinder Liner
 Cylinder lubrication: Oil is supplied through drillings in
the liner.
 Grooves machined in the liner from the injection points
spread the oil circumferentially around the liner and the
piston rings assist in spreading the oil up and down the
length of the liner.
 The oil is of a high alkalinity which combats the acid attack
from the sulphur in the fuel.
 The latest engines time the injection of oil using a
computer which has inputs from the crankshaft position,
engine load and engine speed.
 The correct quantity of oil can be injected by opening
valves from a pressurized system, just as the piston ring
86
pack is passing the injection point.
The Cylinder Liner
 As mentioned earlier, cylinder liners will wear in
service.
 Correct operation of the engine (not overloading,
maintaining correct operating temperatures) and
using the correct grade and quantity of cylinder oil will
all help to extend the life of a cylinder liner.
 Wear rates vary, but as a general rule, for a large bore
engine a wear rate of 0.05 - 0.1mm/1000 hours is
acceptable.
 The liner should be replaced as the wear approaches
0.8 - 1% of liner diameter.
 The liner is gauged at regular intervals to ascertain the
87
The Cylinder Liner
 As well as corrosive attack, wear is caused by abrasive
particles in the cylinder (from bad
filtration/purification of fuel or from particles in the
air), and scuffing (also known as micro seizure or
adhesive wear).
 Scuffing is due to a breakdown in lubrication which
results in localised welding between points on the
rings and liner surface with subsequent tearing of
microscopic particles . This is a very severe form of
wear.

88
The Cylinder Liner
Material
 Cast iron is generally regarded as a suitable material
for construction of diesel engine cylinder liner.
 In order to improve strength and induce specific
desirable properties such as strength and surface
properties, cast iron is alloyed with the inclusion of
small quantities of nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium, copper etc.
 Such inclusions refine the grain structure of the
material.
 The total percentages of alloying inclusions should not
exceed beyond 5%.
89
The Cylinder Liner
Good quality ‘Pearlitic Grey Cast Iron’ consist of the
following alloying material:
 Carbon: 3 to 3.4%. Its graphite flakes assist lubrication.
 Silicon: 1 to 2.0%. Improves fluidity and graphite
formation.
 Manganese: 0.6 - 0.8%
 Phosphorous: 0.5% maximum. Reduces porosity
 Vanadium: 0.15%. Refines grain structure
 Titanium: 0.05%. Improves strength

90
The Cylinder Liner
Reasons for using Cast Iron:
 1. Can be cast in to intricate shapes.
 2. Has good wear resistance:
a) Due to large surface of irregular shaped
graphite flakes.
b) Due to semi-porous surface holding oil pockets.
 3. Possesses good thermal conductivity.
 4. Damps out vibrations due to rapid combustion.
 5. Cheap material.

91
The Cylinder Liner
 One of the advantages of cast iron is its excellent
performance as a lubricated sliding surface.
 The presence of graphite in its microstructure is
mainly responsible for this.
 During the running in period, fresh surface containing
graphite is exposed, leaving minute pores on the
working surface. These cavities store oil.
 The graphite also acts, as a lubricant in the dry state.

92
The Cylinder Liner
 The porous structure of cast iron is of particular
advantage in the liner operation as a remedy against
intensive galling action.
 When scuffing and scoring takes place, the interaction
between two rubbing surfaces tears the metal at the
surface, exposing fresh graphite, which acts as
lubricant.
 This minimises the chance of extreme condition i.e.
seizure.
 The porous surface of cast iron helps to retain
lubricating oil in the minute cavities, which will
readily ooze out to keep the surface wetted in
molecular layer of lubricating oil. 93
The Cylinder Liner
Causes of cylinder liner wear:
 Cylinder wear is also one of the most important factors
governing maintenance costs and repair work on
engines. The combination of very highly rated two
stroke engines and the use of residual fuels have
aggravated this problem.
Normal frictional wear: Caused by metal-to-metal
contact under boundary lubrication conditions. This
may be aggravated by oil with inadequate load carrying
properties, too low a viscosity or an inadequate oil
supply.

94
The Cylinder Liner
 Abrasive wear: Caused by hard foreign matter
introduced with the induction air and by hard particles
of carbon, asphalt, wear debris and ash forming
constituents present either in the fuel or lubricating oil.
 Frictional and abrasive wear are often linked together
under the general description of abrasive wear.
 Sources of hard particles are air borne dust, ash in the
fuel and carbon from combustion.
 To minimize this type of wear one have to keep engine air
filters clean, keep scavenge space clean, effective
centrifuging fuel oil, fuel pump and injector in good
condition, fuel timing correct and keeping the fuel
temperature correct thus achieving good combustion.
95
The Cylinder Liner
Corrosive wear: Caused by acidic products of
combustion, especially condensed sulphur oxides.
 This is especially troublesome when burning high
sulphur content residual fuels.
 Sulphur burns - Combines with oxygen – Produce heat
– Sulphur dioxide.
 Hydrogen + Oxygen gives water H2O – Gives out heat.
 Sulphur dioxide + Water = Sulphurus acid.
 Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen (Catalyst - vanadium
pentoxide) -SO3.
 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4. This H2SO4 in dilute condition
causes all the damage. The dew point of this acid is
around 110*C to 180*C depending on concentration. 96
The Cylinder Liner
 This temperature condition does exist in the liner face
so results in corrosion.
 To minimise this corrosive wear one should use
alkaline based cylinder oil.
 Fuel with 4 to 5% sulphur should use alkaline oil with
Total Base Number 70.
 Fuel with 1% sulphur should use alkaline oil with 20 to
30 TBN cylinder oil.
 Alkalinity in the oil neutralizes the acid thus prevents
corrosion.

97
The Cylinder Liner
 This is only effective when the correct amount oil is fed
in to the liner and the correct number TBN oil is used
for that particular fuel oil sulphur content.
 If either the feed rate or the TBN number is not correct
for that amount of sulphur content in the fuel,
particular wear pattern will occur in the liner, generally
termed as ‘Clover Leafing’.

98
The Cylinder Liner


99
The Cylinder Liner
Reasons for cloverleafing:
 a) Insufficient oil supply.
 b) Inadequate TBN number oil.
 c) Failure of oil distribution in liner face.
 d) Charge air cooler not properly controlled. Supplying
cold air to scavenge space.
 e) Jacket cooling water outlet temperature low,
keeping the liner surface temperature around dew
point of the acid. Keep the cooling water temperature
as high as possible with out forming vapour pockets
and spoil rubber seal rings on liner.
100
The Cylinder Liner
Scuffing wear:
 Scuffing wear occurs when lubricant oil film fails to
separate the ring face on the liner face and subsequent
contact while operating, friction heat is generated to
such an extent that “Micro-welding’ or ‘Micro-seizer’
takes place.

101
The Cylinder Liner
The reasons for this is as follows:
 1. Liner surface too smooth therefore retains too little
oil on its face.
 2. Water on surface of the liner repelling the oil film
formation.
 3. Blow by of combustion gases across the ring sealing
face breaking the oil film formation.
 4. Poor oil distribution on the liner surface by the
quills and/or the gutter groves.
 5. Deposit on piston top landing absorbing the
lubricating oil.
102
The Cylinder Liner
Liner Wear Pattern.
 Maximum normal wear occurs at the top of the liner in a
Port-Starboard direction and around scavenge ports.
 The reasons are:
1. High temperature prevalent at the top dead center reduces
oil viscosity and therefore oil thickness.
2. High gas pressure increases ring loading causing
penetration of oil film.
3. Slow movement of piston allows oil wedge to break down
(Reversal of piston movement).
4. Movement of ship is maximum in Port – Starboard side
than Forward -Aft side causing excess wear.
5. High temperature makes oil film less resistance to acid
penetration. 103
The Cylinder Liner
Causes of Excessive Wear:
- Improper running in.
- Misalignment of the pistons, or distortion of cylinders,
preventing bedding-in of pistons and cylinders.
- Inadequate oil supply, or unsatisfactory arrangements
for lubricant type and quality.
- Lubricating oil too low in viscosity, or too low in
alkalinity (Total Base Number -TBN).
- Piston ring clearances incorrect.
- Unsuitable cylinder liner material or unsuitable piston
ring material or hardness factor between ring material
and liner material not compatible. 104
The Cylinder Liner
- Contamination of lubricating oil, by extraneous
abrasive material.
- Cylinder wall temperatures too high or too low.
- Overloading the engine.
- Scavenge air temperature too low, especially in humid
climates, resulting in excessive quantities of condensed
water entering the cylinder thus aiding acidic formation.
- Inefficient combustion, promoting deposit formation
degradation of the lubricating oil.

105
The Cylinder Liner
- Use of a low-sulphur fuel (containing less than say 1%
sulphur) in conjunction with highly alkaline cylinder
oil - this particular fuel/lubricant combination is not
necessarily harmful.
- But cylinders wear due acidic wear and/or scuffing.
- Low Sulphur fuel oil with high T.B.N lubricating oil
will leave balance alkaline salts which due to heat will
form in to abrasive material and mixing with
lubricating oil will score the liner leading to abrasive
wear.

106
The Cylinder Liner
-

107
-

108
Cylinder head / cover
 This, in combination with the cylinder walls and piston
crown provides the perimeter of the combustion chamber.
 It is therefore exposed to high mechanical and thermal
loads.
 Sufficient penetrations must be made in the cover to
house:
1. Inlet & exhaust valves.
2. Fuel valve or valves.
3. Air Starting Valve.
4. Relief valve.
5. Indicator cock.
 This makes the cover complicated and it is therefore
usually cast.
109
Cylinder head / cover
Stresses in a Cylinder cover:
 Valve housing - holding down studs of valve cause
tensile stress in cover, which increases as the valve
expands if the valve sealing face Is at the bottom of the
pocket.
 Thermal load can also cause tensile stresses &
distortion of inner face of cover.

110
Cylinder head / cover

111
Cylinder head / cover
4-Stroke Engine:
 These are usually made of cast iron because of the
number of valve penetrations and the need for large
inlet air and exhaust gas passages.
 To accommodate the passages and give adequate
strength due to the use of cast iron a very deep casting
is needed.
 In order to avoid high thermal loads good cooling is
needed and this in turn demands thin metal sections.
 To achieve optimum strength and reduce temperature
stresses is very difficult and therefore cylinder covers
are prone to failure.
112
Cylinder head / cover
 The biggest problem area is between the valve and fuel
injector pockets, and this is the most likely area for
cracks to occur.
 To overcome the problem the fuel valve may be offset
from the center of the head, which adversely affects
combustion, but permits larger cooling water passages
and therefore improves cooling.
 Further improvements can be made if:
a) Water-cooled valve cages are used, particularly for the
exhaust valve.
b) Separate sleeves for fuel valves are screwed & rolled
into the cover.
113
Cylinder head / cover
 The first gives more direct cooling as the full flow of
jacket-cover coolant is directed through spaces
adjacent to the seat and stem and the ease of removal
allows more frequent overhauling.
 The latter are an advantage as the sleeve can expand
and contract within the cover reducing the total
stresses and being of thin section occupy little space so
that an adequate water flow can be arranged between
the valve pocket and the exhaust valve.
 A further improvement is the use of four valves (2 inlet
valves and 2 exhaust valves). These allow more room
for the central fuel valve, provide longer areas for gas
flow and reduce valve inertia. They increase the
114
 Cylinder head / cover

Flame plate
supported by
additional ribs

115
Cylinder head / cover
 With the advancement of metallurgy and machining
modern cylinder covers are integral cast with inserts or
bore cooled.
 To remove heat and keep all components in the
combustion zone with in the designed thermal
loading the cooling system is modernised.

116
Cylinder head / cover

117
Cylinder head / cover
 Normally manufactured from spheroidal graphite or
nodular cast iron which is easy to cast.
 Although not as strong as cast steel, which is difficult
to cast into complex shapes due to its poor fluidity, it
maintains a reasonable strength under load.
 Adequate cooling is essential to prevent thermal
fatigue due to uneven expansion throughout the
casting, and bore cooling has been introduced along
with cooling spaces to ensure effective cooling of the
"flame plate" (the underside of the cylinder head
which forms the top of the combustion chamber).

118
Cylinder head / cover
Defects in cylinder covers:
Cracking: Generally occur around the fuel valve pocket
or between the fuel and exhaust valve pocket. They are
caused by overheating, casting strains or notch effects.
Burning: Due to flame impingement.
Distortion: Due to uneven tightening down of the
cylinder cover over the liner face, overheating of cylinder
cover or unrelieved casting strains. It causes liner joint
leakage and or liner flange cracking.
Deposits: Scale & silt due to poor quality water or
contaminated water.
Corrosion: Due to inadequate or nonexistent water 119
Cylinder head / cover
 Cracking of cylinder heads can occur due to poor
cooling causing thermal fatigue.
 Poor cooling can be the result of scale build up within
the cooling spaces due to inadequate water treatment.
 Overloading of the unit causing high peak pressures is
also a cause as is incorrect tightening down of the
cylinder head.
 Cracking normally occurs between the valve pockets
and/or cooling water spaces.
 Cracked cylinder heads can be repaired by specialised
welding; but this must be done under the guidance
and with authorisation from the classification
societies. 120
Cylinder head / cover
2 – Stroke Engine:
 In a 2-s cycle more heat is liberated in the cylinder in a
given time than with the 4-s engine, consequently
cooling is more important.
 However fewer penetrations occur in the cover because
no air inlet valves are fitted and in loop-scavenged
engines no exhaust valves either.
 Because the heat stresses are greater but in a simpler
cover cast alloy steel can be used.
 To further improve the arrangement a 2-part cover can
be used.

121
Cylinder head / cover
 The cylinder cover is made in one piece of forged steel
and has drillings for cooling water.
 It has a central bore for the exhaust valve and bores for
fuel valves, safety valve, starting valve and indicator
valve.
 The cylinder cover is attached to the cylinder frame
with studs tightened by a hydraulic ring covering all
studs.

122
Piston
 The Piston comprises of two pieces; the crown and the
skirt.
 The crown is subject to the high temperatures in the
combustion space and the surface is liable to be
eroded/burnt away.
 For this reason the material from which the crown is
made must be able to maintain its strength and resist
corrosion at high temperatures.
 Steel, alloyed with chromium and molybdenum is
used, and some pistons have a special alloy welded
onto the hottest part of the crown to try and reduce
the erosion caused by the burning fuel.
 The crown also carries the 4 or 5 piston ring grooves
which may be chrome plated. 123
Piston
 The cast iron skirt acts as a guide within the cylinder
liner.
 It is only a short skirt on engines with an exhaust valve
(known as uniflow scavenged engines), as unlike a
trunk piston engine, no side thrust is transmitted to
the liner (that's the job of the crosshead guides).
 A forged steel piston rod is bolted to the underside of
the piston.
 The other end of the piston rod is attached to the
crosshead pin.

124
Piston
• Pistons are cooled either using water or the crankcase
oil.
• Water has a better cooling effect than oil, but there is a
risk of leakage of water into the crankcase.
• Modern engines have oil cooled pistons.
• The piston rod is utilised to carry the oil to and from
the piston.
• The rod is hollow, and has a tube running up its center.
• This gives an annular space which, with the central
bore, allows a supply and return.

125
Piston
- The MAN B&W piston has an 8mm thick heat
resisting layer of a hard
nickel-chrome alloy
called Inconel
welded to the hottest
part of the crown to
resist the "burning"
of the piston crown.

126
Piston
An alternative method
of cooling uses a nozzle
plate and nozzles.
Note that the oil goes
up the annular space
formed between the oil
tube and the bore
in the piston rod,
and returns
down the center.
127
Piston
- The oil is sprayed up matching bores onto the
underside of the crown.
- This allows the crown to be made as thin as possible,
to allow for maximum heat transfer while
maintaining strength, and combined with the
"cocktail" shaker effect caused by the reciprocating
motion, gives efficient cooling.

128
Piston
- When overhauling the piston it is important to check
the thinning of the piston crown due to
burning/erosion/corrosion.
- The piston should be dismantled to check the cooling
space.
- If this is subject to a build up of carbon (in an oil
cooled piston) or scale (in the case of a water cooled
piston) then this may have led to thermal stressing of
the piston, which in its turn can lead to cracking of the
piston crown.
- If the cooling oil is allowed to leak into the combustion
space then the consequences could be disastrous.
129
Piston
Piston Construction:
 In the majority of highly rated 2 stroke engines, the
piston is of two part construction – Cast steel crown
and cast iron skirt are combined in the piston to obtain
the strength and heat resistance of steel in the upper
section where these properties are important and the
good wearing properties of cast iron in the lower
section, where piston bears against the cylinder.
 The piston ring grooves in the piston crown are
chromium-plated for corrosion resistance and surface
hardness.

130
Piston
Piston Materials:
 Cast Iron:
 There was a time this was the most common material
for piston.
 Cracking of cast iron piston was much reduced by the
use of iron castings of pearlitic structure (alternate
layers of ferrite and cementite.
 During slow cooling of an iron-carbon alloy, pearlite
forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite cools below
727 °C (the eutectoid temperature) as seen on the
phase diagram.
 131
Piston
 High tensile spheroidal graphite cast iron is also not
very suitable because its creep properties are not as
good as Flake graphite cast iron.
 Creep is the tendency of a solid material to deform
permanently as a result of long-term exposure to levels
of stress that are still below the yield strength of the
material. Creep is more severe in materials that are
subjected to heat for long periods.
 Flake graphite present in the structure gives good
wearing properties but it does not stand very high
thermal stress.
 It is now mainly used for small low rated engines.
 Commonly used for skirt of composite pistons. 132
Piston
Forged Steel:
 Chrome molybdenum steel has become quite common
these days for piston crown.
 It is heat resisting, strong and ductile. It has Poor wearing
properties.
Aluminum Alloy:
 Mostly used for smaller pistons of medium and high-speed
engines.
 The piston saves in weight i.e. much lighter and gives better
heat flow.
 The drawback to aluminum-alloy pistons is high rate of
expansion of the material.
 This means that an appreciable clearance has to be allowed
when the piston is cold to ensure a safe running clearance
when the piston reaches maximum temperature. 133
Piston
Piston Cooling:
 At first the pistons were cooled with seawater, which
was led in and out through telescopic pipes whose
glands never sealed perfectly.
 Consequently seawater used to get into the crankcase,
causing corrosion on parts of the running gear.
 Corrosion on the crank and cross head pins gave rise to
bearing troubles.
 Moreover corrosive attack inside the piston cooling
space could never be ruled out entirely despite
protective coatings.
134
Piston
 Improvement came with the adoption of close fresh
water cooling circuit, enabling heat extracted from the
engine heat to be rejected to the seawater via the
exchanger.
 Though this improved matters, corrosion could still
not be completely prevented on pistons and bearings.

135
Piston
 With the adoption of oil as standard piston coolant
this problem was circumvented.
 But with the advent of supercharging leading to
increased thermal loads, the piston cooling oil showed
a growing tendency to carbonise at the hot spots in the
piston cooling space.
 This obstructed the heat transfer leading to the
overheating of the piston surface facing the
combustion chamber and eventually to burning away
of piston material.
 In view of the further increase in mean pressure and
still greater cylinder boxes anticipated, it was
concluded that oil cooling had reached its limits.
136
Piston
 Studies and measurements on a test cylinder with 760 mm
bore confirmed that the return to water-cooling for the
pistons of supercharged engines would be beneficial with
regard to piston temperature.
 However the advantages of water-cooling for the pistons
could be exploited only after ways and means were found to
prevent water leaking into the crankcase.
 As before the water is led into and out of the piston
through telescopic pipes but this are now placed inside a
watertight enclosure.
 In this way any leakage from the glands is collected and led
off and there is no possibility of water getting into the
crankcase and causing corrosion there.

137
Piston

138
Piston
Piston Stresses:
 The piston is subjected to compression and tensile
stresses caused by:
1. Gas pressure, which causes distortion of the crown.

139
Piston
2. Thermal stresses, due to temperature difference
between inner and outer surface of the piston.
The crown and upper ring groove suffers distortion as a
result of free expansion on the hot side being restricted
by the cooler surface of the piston.

140
Piston
Inertia Effects:
 The crown of a piston is subjected to very high gas
pressure, which will subject the top surface of the
crown to compressive loading, and the lower surface of
crown will be under tensile loading.
 The piston crown will be like a uniformly loaded beam.

141
Piston
 As the piston is moving upward, towards the end of its
stroke its velocity will be reducing or in other works
retardation will occur.
 The inertia effect will tend to cause the piston to bow
upwards, so that top surface of the crown along with
sides will be under tensile loading and lower surface of
the crown will be under compressive loading.
 The pressure on the top of the piston nullifies the
inertia effects when the piston approaches top center
position in the upward direction.

142
Piston
 It must be understood clearly here that the inertial
forces on a 4 stroke engine at the end of exhaust stroke
will not be nullified in the same manner as in the case
of compression stroke, because the gas pressure at the
end of exhaust stroke is insignificant.
 When the piston is retarded on its approach
downwards to bottom center the piston crown tends to
bow downwards, and its upper surface and the piston
walls are in compression.
 The lower surface of the piston crown will be under
tension.

143
Piston
Design consideration of piston crown:
 Flat surfaces are not self-supporting if subjected to a
pressure on one side.
 An unsupported flat surface takes a concave form on the
side, which is loaded and as the load on gas pressure
increases, the curvature of the concave surface increases,
the amount of curvature being dependent on the
pressure applied.
 Thus if the piston top were flat it would go through a
pattern of varying concavity increasing and decreasing
along with the gas pressure.
 This regular and cyclic change of form, which would
occur in a flat piston crown, would cause it to suffer from
fatigue. 144
Piston
 Curved surfaces such as the curvature of convex or
concave piston crowns are very nearly self- supporting
when loaded on one side.
 As these curved surfaces are self-supporting they do
not change the shape with the changes of pressure over
a working cycle in the engine.
 Consequently the risk of fatigue failure is so reduced.
 The upper part or crown of the piston also forms the
lower part of the combustion chamber.
 The concave or convex curvature must thus also be
arranged in conjunction with the fuel-injection nozzle
spray pattern so that good combustion is encouraged
with in the form of combustion chamber produced. 145
Piston
 The top of the Piston crown forms one part of the
boundary of the combustion space - so while designing
this it has to be considered how it is going to vary the
shape of combustion chamber.
 In certain types, the piston crown is machined to
provide channels and cavities for the favorable
reception and redirection of jets of flame issuing from
the pre-combustion chamber.
 With four-stroke engines, it may be necessary to
arrange ‘cut outs’ in the surface of the crown, to clear
the heads of the inlet and exhaust valves during
overlap period at the top of the idle strokes.
146
Piston
 Generally, the crown end of a piston is slightly smaller in
diameter than the skirt end.
 The resulting slight taper allows for expansion of the metal
at the combustion end.
 Even though slight, the taper is sufficient so that, at normal
operating temperatures, the diameter of the piston is the
same throughout.
 The SKIRT of a trunk-type piston receives the side thrust
created by the movement of the crank and connecting rod.
 In turn, the piston transmits the thrust to the cylinder wall.
 In addition to receiving thrust, the skirt aids in keeping the
piston in proper alignment within the cylinder.
147
Piston
Trunk type piston:
 The piston is directly attached to the connecting rod
by a small end rotating bearing.
 Side thrust is absorbed by extended skirts on piston.

148
Piston
Main troubles to be avoided:
1. Piston seizure
2. Cracking of piston crown and sidewalls, due to cyclic
variation of pressure stress superimposed on stress due to
temperature gradient.
3. Burning of Piston crowns, this occurs mainly on large slow
running engines.
4. Excessive lubricating oil consumption (trunk engines).
5. Sticking of piston rings by viscous deposits, leading to
‘blow-past’ which if excessive can lead to piston seizure or
scavenge fire (crosshead engines).
6. Breaking of piston rings.
7. Scuffing of piston rings and cylinder liners.
149
Piston

150
Piston rings
 The Piston Rings are made of alloying cast iron with
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, nickel
and copper. They are harder than the cylinder liner in
which they run to give them a maximum life.
 Piston rings seal the gas space by expanding outwards
due to the gas pressure acting behind them. They also
spread the lubricating oil up and down the cylinder
liner and transfer heat to the liner walls.
 When overhauling the piston it is important to check
the ring grooves for wear and the piston ring
condition. The axial and butt clearances should be
measured and recorded.
151
Piston rings
 The piston rings must provide an effective seal of the
combustion space.
 Under ideal condition the piston ring surfaces are in
complete contact over its entire depth and periphery with
the liner surface and ring width on landing area.
 The initial seal is established between the ring and the
liner by a radial pressure exerted by the ring when pressed
on liner.
 Following combustion the ring is forced down on the
groove landing surface by the gas pressure.
 The gas pressure is also throttled at the back of the ring
through the small clearance space thus increasing further
the radial pressure against the liner.
152
Piston rings
 The sealing of combustion space by a set of rings on
reciprocating piston follows the labyrinth principle.
 The gas pressure leaked in behind each piston ring is
successively throttled down to the pressure prevailing
at the underside of the piston.
 In this way its natural tendency to leak out is
progressively diminished.
 The number of rings, the ring section area and the
contact areas are determined by consideration of
strength, pressure difference, volume of space to be
scaled, etc.

153
Piston rings

154
Piston rings

155
Piston rings
Ring Material:
 Most popular material is cast iron alloyed principally
with silicon, manganese, chromium, phosphorous,
copper and molybdenum.
 The presence of graphite in cast iron in lamellar form
improves the material property in sliding.
 The graphite acts as a lubricant in the dry state.
 The material must be resilient, strong to withstand the
pressure in the cylinder and sufficient resistant to
wear.

156
Piston rings
Forces acting on a piston ring:
 In Radial direction:
The force exerted through the ring tension.
The gas pressure behind the ring, approximately equal to
the cylinder pressure in the case of a top piston ring.
The friction force between ring and groove.
A force due to the pressure of gas on the outer surface of
the ring again transmitted through the oil film.

157
Piston rings
 In Axial direction:
Gas pressure on the upper side face of the ring.
Gas pressure on the lower side face of the ring.
The friction force between the ring and liner surfaces.
The inertia force due to the weight of the ring, which
varies according to the acceleration or deceleration of
the piston.

158
Anti-polishing ring
 A three-ring piston pack is standard for Wärtsilä
engines as is an anti-polishing ring at the top of the
cylinder liner.
 The function of the latter ring is to calibrate the
carbon deposits on the piston top land to a thickness
small enough to prevent contact between the liner
inner wall and the deposits in any position of the
piston.

159
Anti-polishing ring

160
Piston cleaning ring

161
Piston cleaning ring
 Incorporated in the top of the cylinder liner, the PC-
ring has a slightly smaller inner diameter than the liner
and hence scrapes off ash and carbon deposits built up
on the piston topland.
 Deposit formation on the topland could cause bore-
polishing of the liner wall, contributing to
deterioration of the cylinder condition.
 Introducing the PC-ring eliminates contact between
deposits on the topland and the liner, promoting an
enhanced cylinder condition and lube oil
performance.

162
CPR rings

163
Piston rings
 The Controlled Pressure Relief (CPR) top ring with
relief grooves is now standard on all MC engines and
has proved very effective in protecting the cylinder
liner surface as well as the lower piston rings against
excessive heat load.
 The CPR ring has a double lap joint, and an optimum
pressure drop across the top piston ring is ensured by
relief grooves.
 With increasing mean indicated pressures, the
traditional angle-cut ring gap may result in higher
thermal load on the cylinder liner; this load is
significantly reduced by the CPR ring as no gas will
pass through its double lap joint.
164
Piston rings
 The relief grooves ensure an almost even distribution
of the thermal load from the combustion gases over
the circumference of the liner, resulting in a reduced
load on the liner as well as on the second piston ring.
 Measurements confirmed that the peak temperature
on No.2 piston ring was reduced from 300 degC in
association with an oblique cut top ring to 150 degC
with the CPR top ring.
 No.2 ring retains its spring force and times-between-
overhauls are considerably extended.

165
Alu-coated rings
 Alu-coating of the sliding surface of piston rings was
introduced to ensure safe running-in.
 The aluminium-bronze alloy coating, a type of bearing
material, has proved effective in protecting ring and liner
surfaces during the running-in period.
 Running-in can also be performed with reduced cylinder
lubrication.
 The lifetime of the coating is 1000– 2000 hours.
 The technical explanation is that no scuffing occurs with
the combination of aluminium bronze/grey
 cast iron as the wear components in the cylinder.
 Alu-coated rings allow the normal increase in cylinder oil
feed rate after changing rings and/or liners to be dispensed
with. 166
Rings on trunk-type piston

167
Piston rings
Compression Rings or Pressure Rings: The compression rings
provide sealing above the piston and prevents the gas leakage from the
combustion side. The compression rings are located in the top most
grooves of the piston.
Second or Intermediate Rings: The oil is controlled by shearing the
layer of the oil left by oil ring, thus providing the top compression
rings enough lubrication. Moreover, it also provides help to the top
compression ring in sealing and heat transfer.
Oil Control / Scrapper Rings :The oil control rings controls the
amount of lubricating oil passing up or down the cylinder walls. These
rings are also used to spread the oil evenly around the circumference
of the liner. The oil is splashed onto the cylinder walls. These rings are
also called scraper rings as they scrap the oil off the cylinder walls and
send it back to the crankcase.

168
 Piston rings
Routine Inspection:
 During normal scavenge space inspection, the piston
rings are pressed with the help of a screw driver. This is
done to check the spring action or tension of the rings.
This also tells whether the ring is broken or not. If the
ring is broken then there will be no spring action.
 The rings are checked for their freeness in the grooves,
as they might get stuck due to carbon deposits and
might finally break causing a lot of damage to the liner.
The clearance between the ring and the groove is also
checked and the wear is calculated.

169
Piston rings
During Major Overhaul:
• During major overhauls the rings are changed
completely with the new set.
• But following steps needs to be considered for
scrapping the rings:-
1) If the piston ring is found stuck inside the
groove.
2) If the axial height of the rings is reduced and the
clearance in rings and groove is large.
3) If the chrome layer is peeled off or damaged.

170
Piston rings
• During overhaul the grooves have to be properly cleaned
off carbon deposits and checked for damage in the ring
grooves.

• Rings should be put with the help of proper tool i.e. with
the help of ring expander.

• The clearance between the ring and the groove is checked

with the help of the feeler gauge.

• The axial and radial clearance of old ring is checked and

recorded to assess the amount of wear for number of
running hours.
171
Piston rings

172
Stuffing box
 Because the crankcase is separated from the cylinder
and scavenge space by the diaphragm plate on a two
stroke crosshead engine, provision must be made for
the piston rod to pass through the plate without oil
from the crankcase being carried upwards, or used
cylinder oil contaminated from products of
combustion being carried downwards.
 It is also highly undesirable to allow the pressurized air
in the scavenge space to leak into the crankcase.

173
 Stuffing box
 The Piston rod passes through a stuffing box which is
bolted into the diaphragm plate.
 The stuffing box casing which can be split vertically,
contains a series of rings which are each made up of three
or four segments.
 On the outside of each set of segments is a garter spring
which provides the tension to hold the ring segments
against the piston rod.
 There is a clearance between each segment to allow for
wear.
 The rings are either bronze or can comprise of replaceable
cast iron lamella fitted into a steel backing ring.
174
Stuffing box
 As the Piston rod passes up through the stuffing box,
the oil from the crankcase is scraped off by the lower
sets of rings and is returned via drillings to the
crankcase.
 Any oil that passes this primary set is scraped off by
another set of rings, and is led away through a drain to
a tell tale open ended pipe into a funnel outside the
engine from where it drains to a recycling tank.

175
Stuffing box
 As the piston passes down through the stuffing box,
the top set of scraper rings will scrape off the
contaminated oil into the bottom of the scavenge
space, where it is drained away via the scavenge drains.
 However if these rings are faulty, then the oil may
drain into the recycling tank.

176
Stuffing box

177
Stuffing box
 By observing the open ended tell tale, a guide to the
condition of the rings can be ascertained.
 If a large quantity of oil is draining out, then the lower
set of rings are faulty. If air is blowing out, then the
upper rings are worn.
 Oil in the recycling tank may be contaminated by used
cylinder oil which if mixed with crankcase oil causes
an increase in viscosity of the crankcase oil. Often this
contaminated oil is just landed ashore or burnt.

178
Stuffing box
 Regular maintenance of the stuffing box will keep it in
good condition.
 Checking garter spring tension, ring butt and axial
clearances, and replacing worn rings are all part of the
overhaul procedure.
 Excessive wear will take place if the crosshead guides
are out of alignment or if the guide clearances are
excessive.
 Worn stuffing boxes and excessive leakage can cause
incidence of scavenge fires and increase the risk of a
crankcase explosion.
179
Crosshead

180
Crosshead

181
Crosshead
• The crosshead pin connects the piston rod to the
connecting rod.
• On either side of the crosshead pin are mounted the
crosshead slippers.
• The slippers run up and down in the crosshead guides
as the piston and rod are reciprocating and prevent the
top of the connecting rod from moving sideways.

182
Crosshead
• The crosshead pin sits in the crosshead bearing which
is either a forked type, where the bearing housings are
mounted on the top of the connecting rod either side
of the piston rod, or of the continuous type, where the
bearing housing is formed by the top of the
connecting rod.
• On the forked type, the piston rod passes through a
hole in the crosshead pin and is secured by a nut.
• On the continuous type, the piston rod has a foot
which is bolted onto the top of the crosshead pin.
• Modern engines are fitted with the continuous type of
bearing.
183
Crosshead

184
Crosshead

185
Crosshead
 The crosshead bearing is difficult to lubricate effectively.
 Because the top of the connecting rod swings about the
pin and changes direction each time the piston reaches
mid stroke, the relative speed between bearing and pin
at mid stroke is zero, accelerates to a maximum as the
piston approaches top or bottom dead centre and then
decelerates back to zero again as the piston approaches
mid stroke and the con rod changes direction.
 This means that hydrodynamic lubrication, where the
pin is separated from the bearing by a wedge of oil only
occurs over part of the swing; i.e when the relative speed
between the two components is high enough

186
Crosshead

187
Crosshead
• The load on the pin is always downwards, so it is the
bottom half of the bearing which is subject to wear.
• Because of the high loads the bearing material is a tin-
aluminium alloy bonded to a steel shell. The pin is
highly polished to a mirror finish.
 To accommodate the high downward load and to aid
effective lubrication the pin has a large diameter.
 The bottom halves of the bearing shells have oil
gutters cut in them to assist the distribution of oil.
 Oil is supplied to the crosshead using a swinging arm
or a telescopic pipe and is sometimes boosted in
pressure to aid efficient lubrication.
188
Crosshead
 The crosshead slippers are mounted on stepped
journals machined either end of the crosshead pin,
secured in place by end plates.
 The slippers float on the journals, to allow for any
slight misalignment in the guides.
 The rubbing surfaces are white metal lined.
 Oil is supplied to the slipper rubbing faces from the
crosshead oil supply.
 The slippers have gutters machined in them to assist
the spread of the lube oil.

189
Crosshead
 The guide surfaces are either machined into the A
frames or are separately cast and machined, then
bolted to the A frames.
 The alignment of the guides is very important as is the
clearance between the guides and slippers.
 If this alignment is out of true or the clearances
excessive then excessive wear will occur between
piston rod and stuffing box and piston and cylinder
liner.

190
Crosshead
Advantages of crosshead design:
• Guide faces take side thrust, this is easily lubricated,
wears little and takes side forces off the piston and
liner running surfaces.
• Uniform clearance around piston allows for better
lubricating oil distribution reducing wear
• Using the crosshead design of engine allows engines to
be built with very long strokes (so that engine can
burn greater quantity of fuel per stroke and develop
more power).

191
Crosshead
 Extended load bearing skirts found on trunk pistons
unnecessarily due to gland lubricating oil may be
optimized for crankcase and cylinder.
 High alkalinity oils used in cylinder allow poorer
quality fuels to be burnt.
 The fuel used can be lower grade than that used in a
trunk piston engine.
 Simplified piston construction designed for maximum
strength and cooling.

192
Crosshead

193
Connecting rod
 The Connecting Rod is fitted between the crosshead /
gudgeon pin and the crankshaft.
 It transmits the firing force, and together with the
crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion to a
rotary motion.
 Made from drop forged steel, on the older engines the
bottom of the con rod terminates in a flange known as
a Marine Palm which is bolted to the split bottom end
(Crankpin) bearing, whilst at the top another flange is
formed on which is bolted the two crosshead bearings.

194
Connecting rod

195
Connecting rod
 Connecting Rods on the later engines are produced as a
single drop forging incorporating the top half of the
crankpin bearing housing and the bottom half of the
solid crosshead pin bearing housing.
 On older engines the bearings were white metal thick
wall bearings, scraped to fit.
 Clearances were adjusted by inserting or removing shims
between the bearing halves.
 Oil to lubricate the crankpin bearing is supplied down a
drilling in the con rod from the crosshead.
 When inspecting the crankpin bearing and journal it is
good practice to check the journal for ovality because if
this is excessive, a failure in the hydrodynamic
lubrication can occur. 196
Connecting rod
 This is a highly stressed component resulting from:
1. Gas force loads: Which is a maximum compressive
load at T.D.C. (15% of maximum at 90*A.T.D.C)
2. Inertia loads: Resulting from the reciprocating
running gear is maximum compressive at B.D.C. and
maximum tensile at T.D.C. (particularly in 4 stroke
engines).
3. Transverse inertia loads: Known as " whip" resulting
from the mass of the connecting rod and its oscillating
motion. This is maximum at about 80* past T.D.C. and is
greatest in high speed engines.

197
Connecting rod
 The connecting rod in a medium speed 4 stroke engine
is subject to an inertia whip loading due to the mass of
the con rod swinging about the piston pin.
 (Because of the lower speed of a 2 stroke engine, the
whip loading is not large enough to influence the
design of the con rod)
 Added to this, the inertia loads due to the mass of the
reciprocating parts cause a stress reversal from high
compressive stress (during power and compression
stroke) to a low tensile stress between the exhaust and
inlet strokes.

198
Connecting rod
 Because of the large diameter of the crankpin to
increase bearing area and decrease bearing load, the
width of the bottom end of the con rod is greater than
the diameter of the cylinder liner.
 So that the piston can be withdrawn from the liner, 3
different designs are used:
 - The con rod can be fitted with a marine palm.
 - The con rod can be split in two parts.
 - The bottom end can be split obliquely. Serrations are
used to locate the two halves relative to one another as
well as to increase the area of contact.

199
Connecting rod

200
Connecting rod
 Normally , connecting rods are forge-manufactured
and materials used is typically mild and medium
carbon speed.
 In 4-stroke , connecting rod is constructed by drop
forging and the material used is normally alloy steel
and alloy metals being Ni-Cr-Mo .
 Crank bearing assembly is secured by four bolts out of
which two diagonal bolts are fitted bolts and two are
free bolts .
 Connecting rod is internally drilled for conveying
lubricating oil through its body to gudgeon pin
bearings for lubrication
201
Connecting rod
• The steel half shells are lined with a copper lead layer
and another overlay of lead-tin.
• The shell back is tin plated for a good adhesion with
the housing which improves the heat transfer
property.
• Tri-metal (copper-lead alloy , steel & lead-indium or
lead-tin) bearings are used for construction of the
bottom end bearing of high speed diesel engines

202
Connecting rod
CONNECTING ROD FAILURES:
 In medium and high speed 4-stroke engines, fatigue
cracks or fractures can occur in high stress
concentration areas.
 Transverse buckling is usually caused by crank pin
bearing seizures.

203
Connecting rod
Connecting Rod Bolts:
 Important Designing Considerations:
 Well-formed fillet between bolt head and shank. There
should be a proper chamfer at the mouth hole.
 There should be smooth radii wherever there is a change
in diameter.
 Surface of the bolt should be given a high degree of
finish.
 Bolt material should have adequate strength and high
resilience.
 •It would be ideal to make the bolt of uniform cross-
sectional area but it is necessary to have certain parts of
shank enlarged in diameter for the fitting portions. 204
Connecting rod
Tightening of Bolts:
 Tightening of important bolts such as these should not
be left to chance.
 Following methods are in use:
1. Applying the desired preload by means of hydraulic
cylinder and following up nut.
2. Measuring the extension of the bolt with a micrometer
device whilst the bolt is tightened.
3. Hand tightening lightly, and then turning up the nut
through a predetermined and calculated angle with respect
to the bolt.
4. Using ‘torque spanner’, e.g. a spanner which reads the
torque or set to give way at a predetermined torque.
205
Connecting rod
Failure in Bolts:
 Failure is essentially due to fatigue.
 Factors contributing to failures are as follows:
1. Stress concentrations at bolt heads, change of section,
surface finish etc.
2. Over stretching of bolt.
3. Uneven tightening.
4. Inadequate pretension.

206
Connecting rod
Following points must be considered when checking
the connecting rod for re-use or replacement:
1. Check the ovality of the connecting rod: Check
the ovality of the connecting rod by tightening both
parts at its rated torque. If the ovality is out of limits,
the connecting rod is not to be reused.
2. Check connecting rod for fretting and
corrosion: Connecting rod to be checked for
fretting and corrosion. If fretting is small, it can be
removed by using oilstone. Never use grinder or
scrapper for this purpose. Con-rod with severe
fretting and racks must be discarded.
207
Connecting rod
3. If connecting rod with fretting is to be used,
check for cracks: Minute fretting can be tolerated over
the connecting rod for reuse only if the surface does not
have any cracks. If the fretting is in small area and oil
stone is used to treat the same.
4. Check cracks between connecting rod and
bearing cover: The serration and bore
between connecting rod and bearing cover to be checked
for cracks by using die penetrating crack detection
test. Rod to be used only when there are no cracks
detected. If there are small cracks in the connecting rod
bearing cap serration, renew it with new spare one.

208
Connecting rod
5. Renew connecting rod and connecting rod bearing
cover together: Connecting rod and connecting rod bearing
cover to be renewed as a whole. Never renew single part of
the connecting- rod in case of damage as the serrations are
machined in pair to locate the two halves relative to one
another.
6. Re-machining of serrations should not be done: Re-
machining of serrations of connecting rod /bearing cap or
bore should not be done even if there is minute damage or
indentation.
7. Bearing shell with fretting at its back should not be
used: Bearing shell with fretting at it’s back side must not be
used with connecting rod and it is to be renewed in set.
209
Connecting rod
8. Ensure bolts and bearings are of same type during
replacement: If the connecting rod is replaced, it should be
of same type and same con-rod bolts and bearings to be
used.
9. Replace Connecting Rod Bolts in Sets:
Connecting rod bolts to be used and replaced in sets.
10. Correct sequence and tightening torque: Once it is
decided to reuse or replace the connecting rod, follow the
correct assembling sequence and apply rated tightening
torque on the con-rod bolt with step- by-step tightening
procedure as listed in the manual.

210