Theory of

Theory of Computation
Computation
(2160704)
(2160704)
Prof. Dixita Kagathara
dixita.kagathara@darshan.ac.in

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 Examination Scheme
Examination Marks Total
Theory Marks Practical Marks Marks
ESE(E) PA (M) ESE (V) PA (I)
PA ALA ESE OEP

70 20 10 0 0 0 100

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 GTU Syllabus
Unit Content Total Hrs. % Weightage
1 Review of Mathematical Theory: Sets, Functions, Logical 10 16
statements, Proofs, relations, languages, Mathematical
induction, strong principle, Recursive definitions

2 Regular Languages and Finite Automata: Regular 12 20

expressions, regular languages, applications, Automata
with output-Moore machine, Mealy machine, Finite
automata, memory requirement in a recognizer,
definition, union, intersection and complement of
regular languages. Non Determinism Finite Automata,
Conversion from NFA to FA, ^ - Non Determinism Finite
Automata Conversion of NFA - ^ to NFA and equivalence
of three Kleene’s Theorem, Minimization of Finite
automata Regular And Non Regular Languages –
pumping lemma.

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 GTU Syllabus
Unit Content Total Hrs. % Weightage
3 Context free grammar (CFG): Definition, Unions 12 20
Concatenations And Kleene’s of Context free language
Regular grammar, Derivations and Languages,
Relationship between derivation and derivation trees,
Ambiguity Unambiguous CFG and Algebraic Expressions
Bacus Naur Form (BNF), Normal Form – CNF
4 Pushdown Automata, CFL And NCFL: Definition, 12 20
deterministic PDA, Equivalence of CFG and PDA,
Pumping lemma for CFL, Intersections and
Complements of CFL, Non-CFL
5 Turing Machine (TM): TM Definition, Model Of 12 20
Computation And Church Turning Thesis, computing
functions with TM, Combining TM, Variations Of TM,
Non Deterministic TM, Universal TM, Recursively and
Enumerable Languages, Context sensitive languages and
Chomsky Hierarchy

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 GTU Syllabus
Unit Content Total Hrs. % Weightage
6 Computable Functions: Partial, total, constant functions, 2 4
Primitive Recursive Functions, Bounded Mineralization,
Regular function, Recursive Functions

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 Reference Books
 Introduction to Languages & Theory of Computation by John C.
Martin (Textbook)
 An introduction to automata theory and formal languages By
Adesh K. Pandey, Publisher: S.K.Kataria & Sons
 Introduction to computer theory By Deniel I. Cohen , Joh Wiley &
Sons, Inc
 Computation: Finite and Infinite By Marvin L. Minsky Prentice-Hall
 Compiler Design By Alfred V Aho, Addison Weslley
 Introduction to the Theory of Computation By Michael Sipser
 Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation By John Hopcroft,
Rajeev Motowani, and Jeffrey Ullman

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 Unit wise Weightage

No. UNIT S-16 W-16 S-17 W-17 Total Avg.

1 Review of mathematical theory 14 14 14 14 56 14

2 Regular language & finite automata 28 42 14 35 119 30

3 Context free grammar 7 14 25 10 56 14

4 PDA, CFL & Non CFL 7 14 11 4 36 9

5 Turing Machine 14 21 10 14 59 15

6 Computable Function 7 7 4 7 25 6

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 Unit– 1– 4
Unit
Pushdown
Review of Mathematical
Theory
Automata
Prof. Dixita Kagathara
dixita.kagathara@darshan.ac.in

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 Set

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 Sets
• A set is a collection of objects.
• The objects in a set are called elements of the set.
• Examples:
 A = {11, 12, 21, 22}
 B = {11, 12, 21, 11, 12, 22) Roster Notation
 C = {x | x is odd integer greater than 1}
 D = {x | x is a two digit integer, each of whose digits is 1 or 2}
 E = {3i + 7j | i, j Є N} Set-builder
 F = {x | x Є B and x ≤ 11} Notation

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 Operations on Sets
 Operations on the sets are:
1. Complement
2. Union
3. Intersection
4. Set Difference
5. Symmetric Difference
6. Cartesian product

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 Operations on Sets
Complement
 The complement of a set A is the set A’ of everything that is not an
element of A from Universal Set U.

U
 Example:
U = {1,2,3,4,5} A
A = {1,2}
A’ = {3,4,5}

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 Operations on Sets
Union
 The Union is a collection of all distinct elements from both the set
A and B.

Example
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
U
A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}
A B

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 Operations on Sets
Intersection
 The intersection A ∩ B of two sets A and B is the set that contains
all elements of A that also belong to B (or equivalently, all
elements of B that also belong to A), but no other elements.

Example
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} U
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5}
A B

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 Operations on Sets
Set Difference
 The set difference A - B of two sets A and B is the set of everything
in A but not in B.

Example
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} U
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A - B = {7, 9} A B

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 Operations on Sets
Symmetric Difference
 The symmetric difference A ⊖ B of two sets A and B is the set of
everything in A but not in B or the set of everything in B but not
in A.

Example U
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} A B
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A ⊖ B = {7, 9, 2, 4}
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 Operations on Sets
Cartesian Product
 The Cartesian product A x B of two sets A and B is the set of all
ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
 Ordered means that the pair (a, b) is different from the pair (b, a)

Example
A = {1, 3, 5}
B = {2, 4}
A x B = {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4)}

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 Set of Identities
 Commutative laws

 Associative laws

 Distributive laws

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 Set of Identities
 Idempotent laws

 Absorptive laws

 De Morgan laws

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 Set of Identities
 Other complements laws  Other empty set laws

 Other universal set laws

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 Logic

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 Propositions
 Declarative statement that is sufficiently objective, meaningful
and precise to have a truth value (true or false) is known as
proposition.
 Examples:
• p : Fourteen is an even integer.
• r:0=0
• q : Mumbai is the capital city of India.
• s : a2+b2=4

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 Logical Connectives
 Logical Connectives are:
1. Conjunction (^) (AND)
2. Disjunction (v) (OR)
3. Negation () (NOT)
4. Conditional Connective ()

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 Logical Connectives
1) Conjunction (^)
 The logical connective Conjunction (And) is true only when both of
the propositions are true.
 Example
• p : It is raining
• q : It is warm
• r : It is raining AND it is warm
 Truth table
p q r=p^q
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False False

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 Logical Connectives
2) Disjunction (v)
 The logical disjunction, or logical OR, is true if one or both of the
propositions are true.
 Examples
• p:2+2=5
• q:1<2
• r : 2 + 2 = 5 OR 1 < 2
 Truth table
p q r=pvq
True True True
True False True
False True True
False False False

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 Logical Connectives
3) Negation ()
 p, the negation of a proposition p, is also a proposition
 Examples:
• p : John studies.
• p : John does NOT study.
 Truth table
P P
True False
False True

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 Logical Connectives
4) Conditional connective
 The proposition p q is commonly read as “if p then q”.
 Example:
• P I will win the lottery.
• Q I will buy car for you.

I win the I will buy Promise kept/ Truth Table

lottery car for you broken p q pq
Yes Yes Kept True True True
Yes No Broken
True False False
No Yes Not broken
False True True
No No Not broken
False False True

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 Logical Connectives
 The statement pq can be read as following:
1. “if p then q”
2. “q if p”
3. “ p only if q”
 Consider following two statements
1) “p if q”(qp)
2) “p only if q”(pq)
 If we make conjunction of (1) & (2) then,
(pq)^(qp)=pq (biconditional) "p only if q, and p if q“
 Often read as "p if and only if q"

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 Tautology and Contradiction
 A Compound proposition is called tautology if it is true in every
case.
 Example:

P P P v P Tautology
T F T
T F T
F T T
 A contradiction
F T T is opposite.

 If p is tautology, P is contradiction.

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 Exercise
 Check whether (p v q) ^ (pq) is tautology?

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 Logical Quantifiers
1) Universal Quantifier
 Represented by an upside-down A:  (“for all”)
 Example:
• Let P(x) = x+1 > x, x P(x)
• English translation: “for all values of x, P(x) is true”
• English translation: “for all values of x, x+1>x is true”

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 Logical Quantifiers
2) Existential Quantifier
 Let P(x) = x+1 > x
• There is a numerical value for which x+1>x
• In fact, it’s true for all of the values of x.
• Thus, x P(x) is true

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 Functions

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 Functions
 A function is a relation in which each element of the domain is
paired with exactly one element of the codomain.
 Another way of saying it is that there is one and only one output
(y) with each input (x).

 Example:
x y

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 Function Notation
 Domain: What can go into the function is called domain.
 Codomain: What may possibly come out of a function is
codomain.
 Range: What actually come out of a function is range. The range of
function is subset of codomain
 Example:
1
1 2
• f(1)=2(1)+1= 3 2
3
4
• f(2)=2(2)+1= 5 Range 5
3 6
• f(3)=2(3)+1= 7 7
4 8
• f(4)=2(4)+1= 9 9
10
• The range of function f(x) = {3, 5, 7, 9}
Domain Codomain

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 Onto Function
 If the range of function and codomain of function are equal or
every element of the codomain is actually one of the values of the
function, then function is said to be onto or surjective or
surjection.
 Let us define function where A = {-2,-1,1,2,3,4} and B =
{1,4,9,16} -2
A B
• f(-2) = 4 1
-1
• f(-1) = 1
1 4
• f(1) = 1
• f(2) = 4 2
9
• f(3) = 9 3
• f(4) = 16 16
4
 The range of function f(A) = {1, 4, 9, 16} = B

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 One-to-One Function
 A function for which every element of the range of
the function corresponds to exactly one element of the domain is
known as One-to-One or injective or injection.
 Let us define function where A = {1,2,3,4} and B =
{1,4,9,16,25,36} A B
• f(1) = 1 1 1
• f(2) = 4 4
2
• f(3) = 9
• f(4) = 16 9
3
16
4
25

36

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 Bijection Function
 If function is both one-to-one and onto then function is called
Bijection function.
 Let us define function where A = {1,2,3,4} and B =
{1,4,9,16}
• f(1) = 1 A B
• f(2) = 4 1 1
• f(3) = 9 4
2
• f(4) = 16
9
3
16
4

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 Prove that f: R → R, f(x) = x2 is not one-to-one and not onto function

 The range and codomain of are not equal, So function is not onto
function.
 The function is not one to one because elements of are
connected with more than one elements of .
f(-2) = 4
f(-1) = 1
f(1) = 1 A -2.0 B -2.0
f(2) = 4 -1.0 -1.0
f(3) = 9 1.0 1.0
f(4) = 16 2.0 4.0
3.0 9.0
16.0
4.0

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 Prove that f: R → R+, f(x) = x2 is not one-to-one and onto function

 The range and codomain of are equal So, function is onto function.
 The function is not one to one because elements of are
connected with more than one elements of .
f(-2) = 4
f(-1) = 1
f(1) = 1
f(2) = 4 A -2.0 B
-1.0
f(3) = 9
f(4) = 16 1.0 1.0
2.0 4.0
3.0 9.0
16.0
4.0

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 Prove that f: R+ → R, f(x) = x2 is one-to-one and not onto function

 The range and codomain of are not equal So, function is not onto
function.
 The function is one to one because elements of are connected
with single element of .
f(1) = 1
f(2) = 4
f(3) = 9 A B -2.0
f(4) = 16 -1.0
1.0 1.0
2.0 4.0
3.0 9.0
16.0
4.0

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 Prove that f: R+ → R+, f(x) = x2 is one-to-one and onto function
(bijection)
 The range and codomain of are equal So, function is onto
function.
 The function is one to one because elements of are connected
with single element of .
 The function is onto function as well as one-to-one function. So, it
is called as bijection function.
f(1) = 1
f(2) = 4
f(3) = 9 A B
f(4) = 16 1.0 1.0
2.0 4.0
3.0 9.0
16.0
4.0

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 Compositions of Function
 Let and , the range of f is a subset of B1, then makes sense for
each and the function defined by is called the composition of
and .
 It is written as
 Example

A B C
a 1 @
b 2 #
c 3 !

d 4

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 Inverse of Function
 Let be a function whose domain is the set , and whose range is
the set . Then is invertible if there exists a function with domain
and range , with the property:

 To be invertible a function must be both an injection and a

surjection.

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 Relations

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 Relations
 A relation on a set A is defined as subset of .
 The relation is denoted as where and pair .
 Example
• The ‘=‘ relation on is the set {(1,1), (2,2),…}
where 1 = 1, 2 = 2 and so on
• The ‘<‘ relation on is the set {(1,2), (1,3)…}
where 1 < 2, 1 < 3 and so on

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 Properties of Equivalence Relations
 Assume that is a relation on a set , in other words, , where to
indicate is related to via Relation .
1. is reflexive if for every
2. is symmetric if for every and in , if , then
3. is transitive if for every and in , if and , then
4. is an equivalence relation on , if is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.

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 Example: Equivalence Relation
 Example : A={a, b}, R={(a, a), (b, b), (a, b), (b, a)}
• Reflexive: {(a, a),(b, b)}
• Symmetric: {(a, b), (b, a)}
• Transitive: {(a, a), (a, b), (a, b)
(b, b), (b, a), (b, a)
(a, b), (b, b), (a, b)
(b, a), (a, b), (b, b)
(b, a), (a, a), (b, a)}
 Above relation is Equivalence relation because it is Reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.

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 Exercise
1. A={1, 2, 3}, R={(1, 2), (1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3)} is equivalent
relation?
2. A={1, 2, 3, 4}, R={(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)} is
equivalent relation?
3. A={0, 1, 2}, R={(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 0), (2, 1)} is equivalent
relation?

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 Proof

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 Proof
 A proof of a statement is essentially just a convincing argument
that the statement is true.
 A typical step in proof is to derive some statement from:
1. Assumptions or hypotheses
2. Statements that have already been derived
3. Other generally accepted facts
 There are several methods for establishing a proof, some of them
are:
1. Direct proof
2. By contradiction
3. By mathematical induction

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 Prove: Product of Two Odd Integers is Odd
 To prove: For any integer and , if and are odd, then is odd.
 Proof:
 Assumption: An integer is odd if there exists an integer so
that .
 Let and be any odd integers.
 Then according to definition, there is an integer so that and
there is an integer so that
 To show that there is an integer so that

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 Prove: Product of Two Odd Integers is Odd
  Therefore

 Since we have shown that there is a so that .

 Hence we proved that “The product of two odd integers is
odd”.

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 Rational & Irrational numbers
 A rational number is a number that can be in the form m/n
where m and n are integers and n is not equal to zero.
 Examples:
1.5 = 3/2
6 = 12/2 Rational
5 = 15/3 Numbers

π=22/7= 3.14159265 3589793238462643383279502884197..…

Irrational
Numbers

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 Prove: is Irrational
 Definition: A real number is rational if there are two integers and
so that .
 Proof:
 Suppose for the sake of contradiction that is rational.
 Then there exists some integers and such that .
 By dividing both and by all the factors that are common to both,
we obtain , for some integers and having no common factors.
 Since , . Squaring both sides of this equation, we obtain , and
therefore is even.

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 Prove: is Irrational
 If and are odd, then is odd. Since a conditional statement is
logically equivalent to its contra positive, we may conclude that for
any and , if is not odd, then either is not odd or is not odd.
 However, an integer is not odd if and only if it is even, and so for
any and , if is even, or is even.
 If we apply this when , we conclude that since is even, must be
even.
 This means that for some , . Therefore, .
 Simplifying and cancelling from both sides, we obtain . Therefore
is even and therefore for some .

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 Prove: is Irrational
 We have shown that and are both divisible by 2. This contradicts
the previous statement that and have no common factor.
 The assumption that is rational therefore leads to a contradiction,
and the conclusion is that is irrational.

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 Languages

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 Language
 Language comprises of
• Set of characters –
• Set of strings (words) defined from set of character -
• Language L is defined from , and because contains many string which may
not satisfy the rules of language.
 Example
• = {a, b}
• = {^, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, …}
• Few languages over are
• {^, a, aa, aab}
(| | indicates length of string)
• {}
• {}
• {}
(indicates number of a in string x)
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 Language
 A set of strings all of which are chosen from some , where is a
particular alphabet, is called a language. If is an alphabet, and ,
then is said to be language over alphabet .

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 Operations over Language
 Operations over the language are:
1. Concatenation
2. Union
3. * (Kleene closure)
4. +

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 Operations over Language
 Concatenation
If then concatenation is defined as

Example
= {hope, fear} and = {less, fully}

hope less

hopeless
= {hopeless, hopefully, fearless, fearfully}
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 Operations over Language
 Union
If then union is defined as

Example
= {hope, fear} and = {less, fully}

= {hope, fear, less, fully}

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 Operations over Language
 Kleene Closure (Zero or more occurrences)
If is a set of words then by we mean the set of all finite strings
formed by concatenating words from S, where any word may be
used as often we like, and where the null string is also included.

Example = {ab}

^ ab abab ababab abab ab ab ……

* = {^, ab, abab, ababab, abababab, ….}
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 Operations over Language

If is a set of words then by we mean the set of all finite strings
formed by concatenating words from L, where any word may be
used as often we like, and where the null string is not included.

Example = {ab}

ab abab ababab abababab ……

= {ab, abab, ababab, abababab, ….}
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 Principle of Mathematical
Induction

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 Principle of Mathematical Induction
 Suppose is a statement involving an integer . Then to prove that
is true for every , it is sufficient to show these two things:
1. is true.
2. For any , if is true, then is true.

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 Prove using PMI
 Let be the statement

 To prove: is true for every

Proof:
 Basic Step:
– We must show that is true. is the statement and this obviously
true.
 Induction Hypothesis:
– and

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 Prove using PMI
 To prove: is true

 Proof of Induction
=
=
= (by induction hypothesis)
=

=
= (Hence Proved)

Hence by principle of mathematical induction,

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 Prove 7+ 13+19+…..+(6n+1)= n(3n+4) using PMI, n>=1

 Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(1) is true.
P(1)= 6n+1=(6(1)+1)=7
P(1)= n(3n+4) =1(3(1)+4)=7
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
p(k) = 7+13+19+…..+(6k+1)=k(3k+4)

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 Prove 7+ 13+19+…..+(6n+1)= n(3n+4) using PMI, n>=1

 Step-3: Proof of Induction

P(k+1) = 7+13+19+…..+(6k+1)+(6(k+1)+1)
= k(3k+4)+(6(k+1)+1)
= k(3k+4)+(6k+6+1)
= 3k2+4k+6k+7
= 3k2+10k+7
= 3k2+3k+7k+7
= 3k(k+1)+7(k+1)
= (k+1)(3k+7)
= (k+1)(3k+3+4)
= (k+1)(3(k+1)+4)

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 Prove 1 +3 +5 + … +2n-1 = n2 using PMI, n>=1
 Step-1: Basic
We must show that P(1) is true.
P(1) = 2(1)-1= 1
P(1) = (1)2 = 1
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
p(k) = 1+3+5+…..+(2k-1)=k2
 Step-3: Proof of Induction
P(k+1) = 1+3+5+….+(2k-1)+(2(k+1)-1)
= k2 + (2(k+1)-1)
= k2 + (2k+2-1)
= k2 + 2k+1
=(k+1)2

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 Prove using PMI
 Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(1) is true.
P(1)=(1)2=1
P(1)= =1
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
P(k) = 1+4+9+….k2 =

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 Prove using PMI
 Step-3:Proof of Induction
P(k+1) = + (k+1)2
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

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 Prove using PMI
 Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(1) is true.
P(1)=
P(1) =
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
p(k)=

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 Prove using PMI
 Step-3: Proof of Induction
p(k+1) =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

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 Prove 1+ using PMI
 Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(1) is true.
P(1)= 1+(1*1!)=1+1=2
P(1)= (1+1)! =(2)! = 2
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
p(k) = 1+(1+4+18+…..+(k*k!)) = (k+1)!

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 Prove 1+ using PMI
 Step-3: Proof of Induction
P(k+1) = 1+(1+4+18+…..+(k*k!) + (k+1)*(k+1)!)
= (k+1)! + (k+1)(k+1)!)
= (k+1)! (1+(k+1))
= (k+1)! ((k+1)+1)
= ((k+1) + 1)!

Note:
5!=5*4!
6!=6*5!
(K+1)!=(k+1)*k!

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 Prove that 2n>n3 where n>=10, Using PMI
 Step-1: Basic step
We must show that p(10) is true.
210=1024 and 103=1000
So,1024>1000
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
For k>=10
P(k)= 2k>k3
Statement to be shown in Induction step is,
P(k+1)=2k+1>(k+1)3

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 Prove that 2n>n3 where n>=10, Using PMI
 Step-3: Proof of Induction
2k+1>(k+1)3
Where, 2k+1=(2k )(2)>2k (1.331)
>2k (1.1)3
>2k (1+0.1)3
>2k (1+)3
>2k(1+)3 for k>=10
>()3 (2k)
>()3 (k3) ,because 2k>k3
(2k )(2)>(k+1)3
2k+1>(k+1)3 ;k>=10

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 Prove n(n2+5) is divisible by 6 using PMI
 Step-1: Basic step
We must show that p(1) is true.
P(1)=1(12+5)=1+5/6=1
And, this is obviously true.
 Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
For k>=0 and
P(k)=k(k2+5) is divisible by 6.
Statement to be shown in Induction step is,
P(k+1)=(k+1)[(k+1)2+5] is divisible by 6.

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 Prove n(n2+5) is divisible by 6 using PMI
 Step-3: Proof of Induction
(k+1)[(k+1)2+5]
= (k+1)(k2+2k+1+5)
= (k+1)(k2+2k+6)
=k3+2k2+6k+k2+2k+6
=k3+3k2+8k+6
=k3+3k2+5k+3k+6
=k(k2+5)+3k(k+1)+6
= k(k2+5)+3k(k+1)+6
 Here, k(k2+5) is divisible by 6 ,given in induction hypothesis.
 In Second term k and k+1 are consecutive. So, one number is even and
one is odd. So, even number is always multiple of 2 and here 3 is also
present .So, second term having (2*3) is also divisible by 6.
 Last term 6 is obviously divisible by 6.Hence proved.

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 Strong Principle of Mathematical Induction
 Suppose is a statement involving an integer . Then to prove that
is true for every , it is sufficient to show these two things:
1. is true.
2. For any , if is true for every satisfying , then is true.

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 Prove that Integer Bigger than 2 have prime
factorization using strong PMI
 To prove: is true for every , where is the statement: is either a
prime or a product of two or more primes.
 Basis Step:
– is the statement that is either prime or a product of two or more
primes. This is true because 2 is a prime.
 Induction Hypothesis:
– , and for every with , is either prime or a product of two or more
primes.
 To prove: is either prime or a product of two or more primes.

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 Prove that Integer Bigger than 2 have prime
factorization using strong PMI
 Proof of Induction
– We consider two cases.
1. If is prime, the statement is true.
2. By definition of a prime, , for some positive integer and , neither
of which is or .
It follows that and . Therefore, by the induction hypothesis, both
and are either prime or the product of two or more primes.
Therefore, their product is the product of two or more primes,
and is true.

Hence by strong principle of mathematical induction, Integer bigger

than 2 have prime factorization
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 End of Unit - 1

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