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1013.25 m bar
Barómetro de mercurio
La presión atmosférica
puede medirse como la
altura de una columna de
líquido en el vacio.
760 mm Hg = 1013.9 mbar
approximadamente 760 mm Hg
Atmosphere and vacuum
The power of
atmospheric
pressure is apparent
in industry where
pick and place
suction cups and
vacuum forming
machines are used
Air is removed from
one side allowing
atmospheric
pressure on the other
to do the work
Industrial compressed air
17 16
Pressures are in “bar g”
F
presión = p
S
p
Fuerza avance = De2 * p
4
p
Fuerza retroceso = (De2 - Dv2)* p
4
Dv
Pressure and force
The force contained by a
cylinder barrel is the
projected area multiplied l
by the pressure
Force = D . l . P Newtons
10
Where
D = the cylinder bore mm
l = length of pressurised chamber mm
P = the pressure in bar
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
Relación entre p y V
a T= constante
Pressure P
bar absolute
Boyle’s law states: the
16
product of absolute
14
pressure and volume of a
12
given mass of gas
10
remains constant if the
8
temperature of the gas
6
remains constant.
4
This process is called 2
isothermal (constant
0
temperature). It must be 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
P1 P2
Pressure and force
In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures
P2 P1
Pressure and force
In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures
P1 P2
The gas laws
The gas laws
For any given mass of air the variable properties are
pressure, volume and temperature.
By assuming one of the three variables to be held at a
constant value, we will look at the relationship between the
other two for each case
Constant pressure
V
= constant
T
P
Constant volume = constant
T
Constant Temperature
Constant Pressure
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
219.75K
From an ambient of 20oC -60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
366.25K
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
12
0 bar 16
12
0 bar 16
12
0 bar 16
12
0 bar 16
P1 .V1 P2 .V2
= = constant
T1 T2
Adiabatic and polytropic
compression
40
Temperature Celsius
At 20o Celsius
20
100% RH = 17.4 g/m3
50% RH = 8.7 g/m3
0
25% RH = 4.35 g/m3
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
Water in compressed air
The illustration shows four cubes each representing 1
cubic metre of atmospheric air at 20oC. Each of these
volumes are at a relative humidity of 50% (50%RH). This
means that they actually contain 8.7 grams of water
vapour, half of the maximum possible 17.4 grams
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
Water in compressed air
4 cubic metres at 50%RH and
1000 mbar atmospheric pressure
contained in the space of 1 cubic
metre produce a pressure of 3 bar
gauge
17.4 grams of water remain as a
vapour producing 100% RH
(relative humidity) and 17.4 grams
condense to liquid water
This is a continuous process, so
once the gauge pressure is over 1
bar, every time a cubic metre of
air is compressed, and added to
the contained 1 cubic metre, a
further 8.7 grams of water are
condensed
Low temperature drying
Low temperature drier
Humid air enters the first Humid air in
heat exchanger where it
is cooled by the dry air
going out
Dry air out
The air enters the second
heat exchanger where it
is refrigerated
The condensate is
collected and drained
away
As the dry refrigerated air M Drain
leaves it is warmed by the
incoming humid air Refrigeration
plant
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
Flow of compressed air
Flow units
Flow is measured as a
1 cubic foot
volume of free air per unit
1 litre or
of time
cubic decimetre
Popular units are :
Litres or cubic
decimetres per second
l/s or dm3/s
Cubic metres per minute
m3/m
Standard cubic feet per
minute (same as cubic
feet of free air) scfm
1 m3/m = 35.31 scfm
1 dm3/s = 2.1 scfm
1 scfm = 0.472 l/s
1 cubic metre
1 scfm = 0.0283 m3/min
or 1000 dm3
Free air flow
The space between the Actual volume of 1 litre
bars represents the actual of free air at pressure
volume in the pipe 0 1 litre
occupied by 1 litre of free 1bar a
1/
air at the respective 2
absolute pressures. 2bar a
Flow takes place as the 1/
4
result of a pressure
4bar a
differential, at 1bar
1/
absolute (0 bar gauge) 8
P2 or more 1.894 0
0 5 10 15 20
time
When exhausting air from 9
a reservoir at high 8
pressure to atmosphere 7
P2 bar 6
the flow will be constant absolute 5
1/ P
2 1
until P1 is less than 2 P2 4 P1 is 9 bar a
3 source to
When charging a 2 reservoir
1 atm
reservoir the flow will be 0
constant until P2 is 1/2 P1 0 5 10 15 20
Flow through valves
Valve flow performance is usually indicated by a flow
factor of some kind, such as “C”, “b”, “Cv”, “Kv” and
others.
The most accurate way of determining the performance of
a pneumatic valve is through its values of “C”
(conductance) and “b” (critical pressure ratio). These
figures are determined by testing the valve to ISO 6358
For a range of steady source
pressures P1 the pressure P1 P2
P2 is plotted against the
flow through the valve until
it reaches a maximum
The result is a set of curves
showing the flow characteristics
of the valve
Flow through valves
From these curves the critical pressure ratio “b” can be
found. “b” represents the ratio of P2 to P1 at which the flow
velocity goes sonic. Also the conductance“C”at this point
which represents the flow “dm³/ second / bar absolute”
2
P2
-b
P1
Q = C P1 1-
1-b
Where :
P1 = upstream pressure bar
P2 = downstream pressure bar
C = conductance dm3/s/bar a
b = critical pressure ratio
Q = flow dm3/s
Air Quality
Air filtration quality
ISO 8573-1 Compressed An air quality class is
air for general use stated as three air quality
Part 1 Contaminants and numbers e.g. 1.7.1
quality classes solids 0.1 µm max
and 0.1 mg/m 3 max
Allowable levels of
contamination are given a water not specified
quality class number 0.01 mg/m3 max
Specified according to This is the filtration class
the levels of these resulting from a Norgren
contaminants: Ultraire Filter
solid particles To obtain pressure dew
water points that are low, also
oil use an air drier
Compressed air quality
ISO 8573-1
Class Solids Water Oil
particle concentration Max Pressure concentration
size max maximum Dew point OC mg/m3
µm mg/m3
1 0.1 0.1 – 70 0.01
2 1 1 – 40 0.1
3 5 5 – 20 1
4 15 8 +3 5
5 40 10 +7 25
6 - - + 10 -
7 - - Not Specified -
Pressure dew point is the temperature to
which compressed air must be cooled before
water vapour in the air starts to condense into
water particles
End
Pressure units
Standard Atmosphere = 1.01325 bar abs
Technical Atmosphere = 0.98100 bar abs
1 mm Hg = 1.334mbar approx.
1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx.
1 kPa = 10.0 mbar
1 MPa = 10 bar
1 kgf/cm2 = 981 mbar
1 N/m2 = 0.01 mbar
1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)
Pressure units
1 bar = 100000 N/m2
1 bar = 1000000 dyn/cm2
1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 bar = 14.50 psi
1 bar = 0.98690 standard atmospheres
Pressure units
1 dyn/cm2 = 0.001mbar
1 psi = 68.95mbar
Standard atmosphere = 14.7 psi approx.
Standard atmosphere = 760 Torr approx.
1 inch Hg = 33.8 mbar approx.
1 inch H2O = 2.49mbar approx.
100 mbar is about as hard as the average person
can blow
Temperature conversion
393 120
240 The absolute temperature
220 scale is measured in
373 100
200 degrees Kelvin OK
180
353 80 On the Celsius scale 0OC
160 and 100OC are the
333 140 60 freezing and boiling
120 points for water
313 100 40 OK = OC + 273.15
80
293 20
The Fahrenheit and
60
Celsius scales coincide at
273
40
0 - 40O
20 OF = OC. 9/ + 32
5
253 0 -20
-20
233 -40 -40
OK OF OC
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