MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL

DISTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISTANCES
• BY PACING
• BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
• BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL
• BY PHOTOGRAMMETRIC
• BY ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• BY TACHYMETRIC
• BY TAPING
DISTANCE BY PACING
• Consist of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required
distance. A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking and
varies with different persons. This is used for low precision surveys.

• PACE FACTOR is defined as the length of one’s pace.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝐴𝐶𝐸 𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
• In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on a fairly level ground, a
pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides
respectively. He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four
trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88 and 87 strides.
Determine the following:
a. Pace factor of the pacer.
b. Length of XY.
c. Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is
150.5 meters.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
• Devices used for low precision survey or
where quick measurements are desired.

COMMONLY USED MECHANICAL

DEVICES:

1. ODOMETER/SURVEYOR’S WHEEL – a
simple device that is attached to a wheel
for the purpose of roughly measuring
surface distances.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
• MEASURING WHEEL – more
portable and self-contained
measuring device.
• OPTICAL RANGEFINDER – this
device, which is usually hand-held or
mounted on a small tripod, can be
used to determine distances
approximately simply by focusing.
DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL
METHODS

• By graphical or
mathematical methods,
unknown distances may
be determined through
their relationship with
unknown distances
geometrically.
DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Photogrammetry refers to the
measurement of images on a
photograph. The type of
photographs used are those
taken from an aircraft with the
axis of the camera pointed
vertically towards the terrain to
be photographed.
DISTANCE BY EDM
• These devices send out a beam
of light or high-frequency
microwaves from one end of a
line to be measured, and directs
it toward the far end of the line.
• A reflector or transmitter-
receiver at the far end reflects
the light of microwave back to
the instrument where they are
analyzed electronically to give
the distance between the two
points.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
• The term tachymetric or tacheometry which means “swift
measurements,” is derived from the Greek words takus meaning
“swift,” and metron, meaning “measurement.”

• Based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed; indirect

method of measurement.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
a. Stadia Method
a. STADIA METHOD
• provides rapid means of determining horizontal distances. Because of its low
precision, it is mostly used in topographic surveys and is also used for
checking measurements obtained by more precise methods.

Factors:
• Refinement with which the instrument was manufactured
• Skill of observer
• Length of measurement
• Effects of refraction
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
a. Stadia Method
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
a. Stadia Method
HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS
• FORMULA: D = Ks + C
WHERE:
D = horizontal distance
K = stadia interval factor of the
instrument
s = difference between the
upper and lower stadia
hair reading
C = stadia constant
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
a. Stadia Method
INCLINED MEASUREMENTS
• FORMULAS:
H = (Ks cosα + C) cosα
α
V = (Ks cosα +C) sinα= Ks sin2
2
+ Csinα

WHERE:
α –angle of inclination
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument

set-up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair readings were
observed as 1.50m and 0.80m, respectively. If the stadia interval
factor is 100, and the instrument constant is 0, determine the
length on line AB.
(ANS. 70 m)
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
b. Subtense Bar Method (Obsolete)
• PROCEDURE:
- A horizontal bar with sighting
markings on it, usually 2 m apart,
was mounted on a tripod. The tripod
was centered over one end of the
line to be measured and the bar was
leveled and turned so that it was
made roughly perpendicular to the
line.
- A theodolite is was setup at the
other end of the line and sighted on
the subtense bar.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRIC
b. Subtense Bar Method
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

2. The following subtended angles were read on a 2m long subtense

bar using a transit: 0°54’13”, and 0°22’20”. Compute the horizontal
distance from the transit to each position of the bar.
(Ans. 126.81 m and 307.86 m)
DISTANCE BY TAPING
• Most common method of
measuring or laying out
horizontal distances.
• Consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance
indicated on the tape.
• This method was called
“chaining” in the early days and
the persons undertaking
measurement were then
referred to as chainmen.
DISTANCE BY TAPING
• BREAKING TAPE • SLOPE TAPING
DISTANCE BY TAPING
-SLOPE TAPING
• FORMULAS:

𝑑 = 𝑠 cos α
𝑠 2 = 𝑑 2 + ℎ2

* An obsolete handheld instrument called the clinometer can be used for measuring
slopes and grades. Slopes are often expressed in terms of grade, that is, the number
of feet of vertical change in elevation per 100 ft. of horizontal distance. Grade is
expressed as percentage and may be given a positive sign for uphill slopes and
negative sign for downhill slopes.
TAPING CORRECTIONS
• Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error
• Slope
• Temperature Variations
• Pull (Tension)
• Sag
• Alignment
• Wind
 TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error

An important topic in surveying is

the standardization of equipment,
or the comparison of the equipment
against a standard.
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error

MEASURE LAYOUT
TOO LONG TOO SHORT TOO LONG TOO SHORT
ADD SUBTRACT SUBTRACT ADD

100 m
MEASURED DISTANCE: A B
• AB is measured using 2 tape lengths
• But, the tape length is actually 50.02m (Tape is too long)
• So AB is actually: 2(50.02) = 100.04m
• Must add a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error

MEASURE LAYOUT
TOO LONG TOO SHORT TOO LONG TOO SHORT
ADD SUBTRACT SUBTRACT ADD

100 m
MEASURED DISTANCE: A B
• AB is measured using 2 tape lengths
• But, the tape length is actually 49.98m (Tape is too short)
• So AB is actually: 2(49.98) = 99.96m
• Must subtract a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error

MEASURE LAYOUT
TOO LONG TOO SHORT TOO LONG TOO SHORT
ADD SUBTRACT SUBTRACT ADD

100 m
LAYOUT DISTANCE: A B
• The distance between A and B must be 100m.
• But, the tape length is actually 50.02m (Tape is too long)
• 2 tape applications: 2(50.02) = 100.04m
• Must subtract a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Incorrect Tape Length / Standardization Error

MEASURE LAYOUT
TOO LONG TOO SHORT TOO LONG TOO SHORT
ADD SUBTRACT SUBTRACT ADD

100 m
LAYOUT DISTANCE: A B
• The distance between A and B must be 100m.
• But, the tape length is actually 49.98m (Tape is too short)
• 2 tape applications: 2(49.98) = 99.96m
• Must add a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
• A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape which was
found to be 0.025m too short. If the recorded length and width of the
lot are 180.455m and 127.062m, respectively, determine the
following:
a. Actual dimension of the lot.
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.

(Ans: a. L = 180.365 m, W = 126.998 m; b. ERROR = 23 m2)

TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Correction due to Slope
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
• Slope distance AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for point A and
B, and 10.85 m for point B and C. using the approximate slope
correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length
of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.

(Ans. 991.14 m)
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Correction due to Temperature Variations
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
• A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/°C is
known to be 50m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line
which was found to be 532.28 m long when the temperature was
35°C. Determine the following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line
(Ans. a. +0.0087, b. +0.0926, c. 532.37 m)
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Correction due to Pull / Tension
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

• A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2,
determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.

(Ans. 0.003 m)
TAPING CORRECTIONS
- Correction due to Sag
 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

• A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg. If the tape
weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance between the
ends of the tape.

(Ans. Cs = 0.0162 m, L’ = 29.9838 m)

SEATWORK
• A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m,
has a cross-sectional area at 0.04 sq.cm, and being made of steel, its
modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2. This tape was used in the
field to measure a distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At
the time the measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8
kg with the tape supported only at its end points. Determine the
correct length of the line.