Chapter 16: Composites

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the classes and types of composites?
• What are the advantages of using composite
materials?
• How do we predict the stiffness and strength of the
various types of composites?

Chapter 16 - 1
 Composite
• Combination of two or more individual
materials

• Design goal: obtain a more desirable

combination of properties (principle of
combined action)
– e.g., low density and high strength

Chapter 16 - 2
 Terminology/Classification
• Composite:
-- Multiphase material that is artificially
made.

• Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix

Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 - 3
 Terminology/Classification
• Matrix phase: woven
-- Purposes are to: fibers
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC 0.5 mm
cross
metal ceramic polymer section
view
• Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. 0.5 mm
CMC: increase KIc Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist. Introduction to Composite Materials,
2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.

Chapter 16 - 4
Classification of Composites

Adapted from Fig. 16.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 - 5
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (i)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles: Adapted from Fig.
cementite 10.19, Callister &
steel ferrite (a) Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
(ductile) (Fe C) 10.19 is copyright
3 United States Steel
(brittle) Corporation, 1971.)
60 mm
Adapted from Fig.
- WC/Co matrix: particles: 16.4, Callister &
cemented cobalt WC Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
16.4 is courtesy
(ductile, (brittle,
carbide tough)
: hard)
Carboloy Systems,
Department, General
Electric Company.)
600 mm
Adapted from Fig.
16.5, Callister &
- Automobile matrix: particles: Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
tire rubber rubber carbon 16.5 is courtesy
Goodyear Tire and
(compliant) black Rubber Company.)
(stiff)
0.75 mm Chapter 16 - 6
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (ii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete – gravel + sand + cement + water

- Why sand and gravel? Sand fills voids between gravel particles
Reinforced concrete – Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh
- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete
- Rebar/remesh placed under tension during setting of concrete
- Release of tension after setting places concrete in a state of compression
- To fracture concrete, applied tensile stress must exceed this
compressive stress

Posttensioning – tighten nuts to place concrete under compression

threaded
rod
nut
Chapter 16 - 7
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two “rule of mixture” extremes:
upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa)
Data: 350 Adapted from Fig. 16.3,
lower limit:
Cu matrix 30 0 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp (Fig. 16.3 is from R.H.
= + Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol.
particles 20 0 Ec Em Ep 63, 1963.)

150

0 20 40 60 80 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)
• Application to other properties:
-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace E’s in equations with se’s.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E’s in equations with k’s.
Chapter 16 - 8
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (i)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fibers very strong in tension
– Provide significant strength improvement to the
composite
– Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments in a
polymer matrix
• Glass fibers
– strength and stiffness
• Polymer matrix
– holds fibers in place
– protects fiber surfaces
– transfers load to fibers

Chapter 16 - 9
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (ii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fiber Types
– Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratios
• graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive and difficult to disperse
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE
– Wires
• metals – steel, molybdenum, tungsten

Chapter 16 - 10
 Longitudinal
direction
Fiber Alignment
Adapted from Fig. 16.8,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Transverse
direction

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous
Chapter 16 - 11
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced
• Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)
2 mm
fibers: g ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle)
From W. Funk and E. Blank, “Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites",
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998,
1988. Used with permission.
Structural
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
(a) fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
(b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Chapter 16 - 12
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iv)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions
• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:
-- fabrication process: very stiff
- carbon fibers embedded very strong
in polymer resin matrix, (b)
C matrix:
500 mm
- polymer resin pyrolyzed less stiff
at up to 2500ºC. view onto plane less strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
fibers lie
turbine exhaust flaps,
(a) in plane
missile nose cones.
• Other possibilities:
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,
-- Discontinuous, random 3D Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
-- Discontinuous, aligned Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Chapter 16 - 13
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (v)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber ultimate tensile strength fiber diameter
sf d
fiber length  shear strength of
2c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed
• For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers: Long, thin fibers:
sd sd
fiber length  f fiber length  f
2 c 2c

Low fiber efficiency High fiber efficiency

Chapter 16 - 14
 Composite Stiffness:
Longitudinal Loading
Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite
modulus of elasticity for continuous fibers
• Longitudinal deformation
sc = smVm + sfVf and c = m = f

volume fraction isostrain

 Ecl = EmVm + Ef Vf Ecl = longitudinal modulus

c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
Chapter 16 - 15
 Composite Stiffness:
Transverse Loading
• In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load

c= mVm + fVf and sc = sm = sf = s

isostress
1 Vm Vf
  
E ct E m E f

Ect = transverse modulus
EmEf
Ect 
VmEf  Vf Em

c = composite
f = fiber
 m = matrix
Chapter 16 - 16
 Composite Stiffness
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Estimate of Ecd for discontinuous fibers:

sfd
-- valid when fiber length < 15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ecd = EmVm + KEfVf

efficiency factor:
Values from Table 16.3, Callister &
-- aligned: K = 1 (aligned parallel) Rethwisch 8e. (Source for Table
-- aligned: K = 0 (aligned perpendicular) 16.3 is H. Krenchel, Fibre
Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy) Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

Chapter 16 - 17
 Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Estimate of s cd* for discontinuous fibers:

1. When l > lc
 l 
s cd 
*
 s f Vf 1   s m (1Vf )
* c

  2l 
2. When l < lc

 l c
s cd *
 Vf  s m (1Vf )
d


Chapter 16 - 18
 Composite Production Methods (i)
Pultrusion
• Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with
thermosetting resin
• Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
• Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
– precision machined to impart final shape
– heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix

Fig. 16.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 -
 Composite Production Methods (ii)
• Filament Winding
– Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined
pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
– Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
– Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a
mandrel
– After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an
oven or at room temperature
– The mandrel is removed to give the final product
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
[Fig. 16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]

Chapter 16 -
 Classification: Structural
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Laminates -
-- stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
Adapted from
- benefit: balanced in-plane stiffness Fig. 16.16,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• Sandwich panels
-- honeycomb core between two facing sheets
- benefits: low density, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 16.18 is from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.) Chapter 16 - 21
 Composite Benefits
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r
Force 3 ceramics
particle-reinf 10
E(GPa) 2 PMCs
10
10 metal/
fiber-reinf
1 metal alloys
un-reinf
0.1 polymers
0.01
Bend displacement 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30
10 -4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ss (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10 -6
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a
Increased silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10 -8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
10 -10
s(MPa)
20 30 50 100 200 Chapter 16 - 22
 Summary
• Composites types are designated by:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement (particles, fibers, structural)
• Composite property benefits:
-- MMC: enhanced E, s, creep performance
-- CMC: enhanced KIc
-- PMC: enhanced E/r, sy, TS/r
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Types: large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
-- Properties are isotropic
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Types: continuous (aligned)
discontinuous (aligned or random)
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic
• Structural:
-- Laminates and sandwich panels
Chapter 16 - 23
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 16 - 24