Introduction to

Welding Inspection & Radiographic Testing

by
Part A - Adil Waqar (AM-QA)
Part B - Zee Shan Babar (AM-QA)
 PART A

WELDING AND WELDING

INSPECTION
• WELDING
• REQUIREMENT OF WELDING
TECHNOLOGY
• WELD JOINTS
• TYPES OF WELDS
• WELDING SYMBOLS
• IMPORTANT ARC WELDING
PROCESSES
• DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF
WELDING INSPECTOR
• WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
3
 WELDING

DEFINITION
Welding is an operation / process whereby two or more parts
are united by means of heat or pressure or both and with or
without use of filler metal.
 REQUIREMENT OF WELDING TECHNOLOGY
DEFINITION
Welding technology is optimization of available resources
combined together with economy and efficiency
While preparing welding technology a written document is
generated which should include the guideline set by the code /
standards applicable , fabrication process , . Purpose to prepare
welding technology is quality work and may not be required for
the less important jobs or where small amount of welding
required.
 WELDING TECHNOLOGY PROCEDURE
Following points are generally considered essential in particular welding
technology documents
• Contract Analysis
• Drawing study
• Selection of welding processes
• Filler metal ( consumable ) selection
• Selection of edge preparation
• Pre and post weld heat treatment
• Selection of auxiliary equipment's
• Type scope and stage of inspection
• Sequence of operation
• Review of technology
• Preparation of technology documents
 SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
Possible sequence of operation could be as follows
• DRAWING / SKETCHING
• CUTTING GROOVE MAKING
• GRINDING , CLEANING OF SURFACE ALONG THE GROOVE
• ROLL BENDING
• FIT UP AND TACKING
• PRE – HEATING (IF NEEDED)
• WELDING ON ONE SIDE
• GAUGING , GRINDINGAND CLEANING OF ROOT ON OTHER SIDE
• WELDING OF OTHER SIDE
• NDE
 PREPARATION OF TECHNOLOGY DOCUMENTS
In addition to the detail preparation of welding technology , the
preparation of required technology form is also essential . This
includes , WPS , PQR , WPQ, welding plan , instruction sheets for
welders etc. some of the documents may be needed to get the
reviewed by the client or Q/A personal or Authorized inspector.
 WELD JOINTS
In a welded fabrication welds are used to join different parts. Such
junction parts are called weld joints
TYPES OF JOINTS
• Butt joint: it is a joint between two members laying approximately
in the same plane.
• Corner joint: it is a joint between two members located
approximately at the right angle to each other in the form of angle.
• T-Joint: it is a joint between two members located approximately at
the right angle to each other in the form of T.
• Lap joint : it is a joint between two overlapping members.
• Edge joint: it is a joint between the edge of two or more parallel or
mainly parallel members
ANGULAR LIMITS OF DIFFERENT JOINTS
 TYPES OF WELDS
1. FILLET WELD
2. GROOVE WELD
3. BACK or BACKING WELD
4. PLUG or SLOT WELD
5. SEAM WELD
6. SURAFCING WELDING
 Fillet weld
Fillet welding refers to the process of joining two pieces of metal
together whether they be perpendicular or at an angle. These
welds are commonly referred to as Tee joints which are two
pieces of metal perpendicular to each other
 Groove weld
Groove Weld Here the two sides to be welded require full
penetration in order to achieve a strong connection
• Weld Root
The weld root is the point at which the back of a weld intersects with
the base metal surfaces. It determines the weld penetration and fusion
to form a rigid joint
• Root Face
A root face is the surface of. the groove that is adjacent to the root of
the joint
• Groove Face
Any surface in the weld groove prior to welding
• Root Opening
In welding, the distance between members at the root of the joint.
• Bevel Angle
The angle between the bevel of a joint member and a plane
perpendicular to the surface of the member
• Groove Angle
The included angle between the groove face of a weld groove
 WELDING SYMBOL
All welding symbols have a minimum of two basic parts
• Reference line
• Arrow line
 Welding symbol may consist of the following
eight elements

• A reference line
• As arrow
• A tail
• Basic weld symbol
• Dimensions and
other data
• Supplementary
symbols
• Finish symbols
• Specs. , process or
other reference
 IMPORTANT ARC WELDING PROCESSES
• SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
• GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
• SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
ADVANTAGES:
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) can be carried out in any
position with highest weld quality.
2. SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
3. This welding process finds innumerable applications, because of
the availability of a wide variety of electrodes.
4. Big range of metals and their alloys can be welded easily.
5. The process can be very well employed for hard facing and metal
resistance etc.
6. Joints (e.g., between nozzles and shell in a pressure vessel) which
because of their position are difficult to be welded by automatic
welding machines can be easily accomplished by flux shielded
metal arc welding.
7. The SMAW welding equipment is portable and the cost is fairly
low.
 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
LIMITATION:
1. Due to flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment
and other related defects are more as compared to MIG and
TIG welding.
2. Duo to fumes and particles of slag, the arc and metal transfer
is not very clear and thus welding control in this process is a
bit difficult as compared to MIG welding.
3. Due to limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating
on it, mechanization is difficult.
4. In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one
electrode finishes, the weld is to be progressed with the next
electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag inclusion
or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where
welding is restarted with the new electrode
 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
ADVANTAGES:
• Low cost equipment
• Low cost consumables – out of all the process the consumables for mig welding have the lowest cost
• High deposition rates – especially when compared to stick welding. With the GMAW process you can
deposit up to nearly 10 pounds per hour (deposited weld metal).
• Low hydrogen deposits – since solid does not pick up moisture like flux-cored wires and stick electrodes it
consistently deposits welds with low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
• Can weld almost all metals – by simply changing your filler wire and at times the shielding gas you can
weld from carbon steel, to stainless steel, to nickel alloys and aluminum.
• Low levels of spatter – low spatter can be achieved by selecting the right mode of metal transfer. Spray
and pulse welding can provide this benefit.
• Unlimited thickness – this process allows for welding light gage material and up to unlimited thickness by
using multiple passes. Higher amperages and proper joint configuration are needed to weld.
• Easy to learn – unlike tig welding or stick welding, mig welding is easy to learn.
• Little clean up – since mig welding is a slag less process it does not require chipping slag, cleaning up flux
or discarding unused stick stubs.
• High electrode efficiencies – the GMAW process provides efficiencies of 93-97%. This means that if you
buy 100 pounds of mig wire you will be deposition 93 to 97 pounds of weld metal. A process like SMAW
(stick welding) has electrode efficiencies of around 65%. This is due to loss due to spatter, slag, and not
consuming the entire electrode.
 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
LIMITATION:
• Sensitive to contaminants – the process can only handle low to moderate
levels of surface contaminants such as rust, mill scale, dirt, oil and paint. All
these have potential to create problems such as porosity, incomplete fusion,
bad bead appearance and even cracking.
• Portability – moving the welding equipment may not be that tough, but you
also have to handle the high pressure cylinders that contain the shielding gas.
Proper care must be taken.
• Sensitive to wind – the shielding gas used for mig welding can easily be blown
away when welding outdoors. Even inside, a fan or a wind draft of as low as
5mph can be enough to cause porosity.
• Lack of fusion – due to the ability to weld at low currents this process has the
potential for lack of fusion when running in short circuit mode. Make sure you
always use the correct procedure for the thickness of material you are welding.
There is a reason why the American Welding Society does not have pre-
qualified procedures using the short-circuit mode of metal transfer.
• Open arc process – as with most welding process, GMAW exhibits an open arc.
Proper care must be taking to shield the welder and bystanders from the
harmful UV rays.
 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
ADVANTAGES
• The weld results are stronger because they can penetrate deeper and
have higher corrosion resistance.
• Welding results are very clean.
• Welding results do not need to be cleaned because they do not
produce slag.
• Does not produce spatter or welding sparks so the weld is cleaner.
• The gas flow makes the area around the metal liquid not contain air so
that it prevents fouling by nitrogen and oxygen.
• The welding process can be observed easily, not much smoke arises.
• Deformation is rare because the heat center is very small.
LIMITATION
• Low weld productivity.
• During the welding process, burn-back can occur.
• Porosity weld defects or small holes often occur if the welding surface
shielding gas cannot protect maximally.
• Tungsten inclusion can occur.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
ADVANTAGES:
• One of the top advantages of submerged arc welding is that it prevents
hot materials from splattering and splashing onto workers.
• Another benefit is that the flux prevents high levels of radiation from
being emitted into the air.
• Submerged arc welding does not require added pressure to weld
because it is already generated by the electrode.
• This application is excellent for quickly welding together thin metal
sheets and creates a secure fusion between welds.
• This application also produces high productivity, fast travel speed, high
repeatability, and quality results.

LIMITATION
• that materials that can be welded by SAW are limited to steel, stainless
steel, and some nickel.
• Submerged arc welding is also limited to materials that are long and
straight or are rotated pipes.
• despite having some safety advantages there is still the risk of having
the residue from the flux left behind, which could be harmful to
employee health.
 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
ADVANTAGES:
• High quality weld meta deposit.
• Excellent Weld Appearance Smooth , Uniform Welds.
• Excellent contour of horizontal fillet weld.
• Many steel weld able over avoid thickness range.
• High operating factor-easily Mechanized.
• High deposition rates – high current density.
• Relatively high electrode deposit efficiency.
• Economical engineering joint designs.
• Visible arc – easy to use.
• Less pre cleaning required than GMAW.
• Reduced distortion over SMAW.
• Up to 04 Times greater deposition rate than SMAW.
• use of self – shielded electrodes eliminates need for flux handling or Gas
apparatus, and is more tolerant to windy conditions present in outdoor
construction.
• Higher tolerance for contaminants that may cause weld creaking.
• Resistant to under bead cracking.
 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
LIMITATIONS of FCAW
• FCAW is presently limited to welding ferrous metals and nickel bas e alloys
• The process produces a slag covering which must be removed.
• FCAW electrode wire is more expensive on a weight basses than solid
electrode wires except for some high alloy steels.
• The Equipment's is more expressive and complex than that required for
SMAW however increased productivity usually compensates for this.
• The wire feeder and power source must be fairly closed to the point of
welding.
• For the gas shielded version, the external shield adversely effected by
breezes and drafts excepts in very high winds this is not a problem with
self-shielded electrodes because the shield is generated at the end of
electrode , which is exactly where it is required .
• Equipment is more complex then that for |SMAW so more maintenance
required.
• More smoke and fumes are generated (compared to GMAW $ SAW)
 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILIES OF WELDING
INSPECTOR

The most important responsibility of welding inspector is the

ability to read and understand all the welding drawings and
written specifications , Monitoring and inspect all work
performed by tackers and welders and/or welding operators.
Inspect and evaluate welds according to specified inspection
procedures, standards, codes, and drawings. Record welding
inspection results that were witnessed and prepare
associated report.
IMPORTANT QUALITIES OF WELDING INSPECTOR
(KASH)
 DUTIES OF WELDING INSPECTOR
The duties of welding inspector are an important list of tasks or
checks that need to be carried out by the inspector , ensuring
the job is completed to a level of quality specified . these tasks or
checks are generally directed in the applied application
standards.
A typical list of a welding inspectors duties may be produced
which for simplicity can be initially grouped into 3 specific area
1. Inspection before welding.
2. Inspection during welding.
3. Inspection after welding ( including repairs).
 INSPECTION BEFORE WELDING
• Safety
• Documentations ( specifications ,drawings , welding
procedures, validate certificate of calibration )
• Welding process and ancillaries (welding equipment's ,
cables , regulators , ovens etc. )
• Incoming consumables
• Marking out preparation and setup ( correct method of
cutting weld preparation , correct preparation of bevel
angles , root face , root gap , correct pre weld distortion
control , correct level and method of pre heat prior to tack
weld , all tack weld be monitors and inspected )
 INSPECTION DURING WELDING
During welding following parameter should be checked.
• Weather conditions ( site work)
• In process distortion control.
• Consumable control.
• Welding processes and all related variable parameter.
• Welding conditions for root run /hot pass and all subsequent
run and inter-run cleaning.
• Check compliance with all other variables stated on the
approved procedure.
 INSPECTION AFTER WELDING
• Visual inspection of weld joint.
• Check and monitor NDT requirement.
• Post weld heat treatment and re-inspection with NDE/NDT
after PWHT .
• Hydrostatic test procedure ( for pipeline or pressure
vessels)
 RESPONSIBILITIES OF WELDING INSPECTOR
To be fully effective, a welding inspector requires a high level of
knowledge, experience and a good understanding of job
Good welding inspector should carry out their duties completely, use
their authority wisely and be constantly aware of their responsibilities
The main responsibilities of welding inspectors are :
 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
All welding defects are developed discontinuities. If a discontinuity
renders a weld incompetent or lowers its quality, it would be
classified as a defect. Defects make the product risky to use or
substandard. It is up to the quality control to decide whether the
discontinuity qualifies as a defect or not.

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 TYPES OF WELDING DISCONTINUITIES

• POROSITY
• INCLUSION
• INCOMPLETE FUSION
• INADEQUATE JOINT PENTRATION
• CRACKS
• UNDERCUT
• UNDERFILL
• OVERLAP

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 POROSITY
Porosity is weld metal contamination in the form of a trapped gas.
Shielding gases or gases released as a result of the torch being
applied to treated metal are absorbed into the molten metal and
released as solidification takes place. Luckily, porosity is a defect that
has an approximate 90 percent prevention

36
 INCLUSION
LINEAR INCLUSIONS : It occur when there is slag or flux in the weld.
Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect
usually occurs in welding processes that use flux, such as shielded
metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged
arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding.

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 INCOMPLETE FUSSION
Incomplete fusion is a weld discontinuity in which fusion did not
occur between weld metal and fusion faces or
adjoining weld beads. Incomplete joint penetration is described as a
joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld metal does not
extend through the joint thickness.

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 INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION
When the actual root penetration of a weld is less than specified,
the discontinuity at the root is called inadequate penetration. This
may result from insufficient heat input, improper joint design (metal
section too thick), incorrect bevel angle, or poor control of the arc.

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 CRACKS

Hot cracks. These can occur during the welding process

or during the crystallization process of the WELD
JOINTS. The temperature at this point can rise over
10,000C.

Cold cracks. These cracks appear after the weld has

been completed and the temperature of the metal has
gone down. They can form hours or even days after
welding. It mostly happens when welding steel. The
cause of this defect is usually deformities in the
structure of steel.

Crater cracks. These occur at the end of the welding

process before the operator finishes a pass on the weld
joint. They usually form near the end of the weld.
When the weld pool cools and solidifies, it needs to
have enough volume to overcome shrinkage of the
weld metal. Otherwise, it will form a crater crack. 40
 UNDERCUT
Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the base metal and
which reduces the strength of the weld and work pieces. One reason for this type of defect
is excessive current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the weld; this
leaves a drain-like impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is if a poor
technique is used that does not deposit enough filler metals along the edges of the weld. A
third reason is using an incorrect filler metal, because it will create greater temperature
gradients between the center of the weld and the edges. Other causes include too small of
an electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc length, and slow speed.

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 UNDER FILL
Under fill - A condition in which the weld face or root surface
extends below the adjacent surface of the base metal. Partial joint
penetration groove welds are commonly specified in lowly loaded
structures. A fix for an incomplete penetration joint would be to
back gouge and weld from the other side.

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 OVERLAP
Overlap is defined as a protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe,
or weld root. This condition occurs in fillet welds and butt joints and
produces notches at the toe of the weld that are undesirable because
of their resultant stress concentration under load.

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44
 PART B

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

IAEA TEC 628

ISO 9712 & SNT-TC-1A
46
 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NDT Technology is the use of physical methods which will test materials,
components and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging
their future usefulness
Characteristics of NDT Methods
Testing medium
Changes due to defects
Detection
Interpretation
Application
Requirements
Skill of the operator
Written Procedure
Proper eye sight
Performance demonstration

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 CONT’D
Types of NDT Methods
Visual Testing
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Magnetic Particle Testing
Radiographic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Eddy Current Testing
Leak Testing
Acoustic Emission

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 Marie Curie Wilhelm Röntgen
First woman to receive a Nobel Prize First person to be awarded Nobel Prize
First person to be awarded two
49
Nobel Prizes
 RADIATIONS
o Origin
o Wavelength
o X- Ray Spectrum
o Gamma Ray Spectrum (Cesium - 137, Cobalt - 60, Iridium - 192)
o Inverse Square Law
I1/I2 = (r2/r1 )2
D1/D2= (r2/r1)2 ; (E1/E2 = (r1/r2)2)

RADIACTIVITY
o Radioisotopes
o Radioactive Decay
A = Ao e –λt
λ = 0.693/T1/2
o Units
Cont’d

INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

o Photoelectric Absorption
o Compton Scattering
o Pair Production
 RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS
CONSTRUCTION OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS
Cont’d

RADIOGRAHIC DENSITY
o Degree of blackening obtained on a radiograph after processing

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAHIC FILMS

o Film Speed
Measure of the response of the emulsion to radiation
o Film Contrast
Ability of a film to detect and record different radiation exposure as variation in
radiographic density
o Film Latitude
Range of thickness of a material that can be recorded on the radiograph within
the useful range of film density
o Film Graininess
When a developed X-ray film is viewed in detail on an illuminated screen,
minute density variations are visible in a grainy sort of structure. This visual
impression is called “graininess”
Cont’d
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
 FILM PROCESSING
o DEVELOPMENT
To convert the exposed silver bromide grains to black silver
o RINSING
To stop the action of the developer
o FIXING
To remove unexposed silver bromide grains
o WASHING
To remove the residue of the processing chemical which may spoil the
radiograph image during storage of radiograph
o DRYING

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 GEOMETRIC PRINCIPLES IN RADIOGRAPHY
A radiograph is a shadow of an object recorded on a radiographic film
Specimen is placed between radiographic film and source for a
predetermined time

56
Cont’d
The appearance of shadow of a defect is influenced by following factors
i) Shape of Defect
ii) Orientation of the defect w.r.t the direction of radiation and plane of the
film

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Cont’d
iii) Size of source and its distance from the defect and the film
P/F= ofd/ (sfd-ofd)

sfdmin=t[(F/0.025)+1] (Critical)
sfdmin=t[(F/0.050)+1] (General)

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Cont’d
CONTROL OF SCATTER
Scattered radiation cannot be completely eliminated
i) Lead foil Screen
ii) Lead top table
iii) Filters
iv) Collimators
v) Masks
vi) Collimator/ diaphragm

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 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR
The quality of radiograph is indicated (evaluated) by the use of device called
image quality indicator (IQI)

Wire Type IQI

ISO 19232-1, E-747, EN 462

60
Cont’d

Plate Type Penetrameter

61
 PLACEMENT OF IQI
Following points should be kept in mind while using IQI
o Material
o Source side
o Separate block
o Thinnest wire
o Placement of IQI
o More then one IQI

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 DETERMINATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE
Radiographic Exposure is product of source strength and time for which the
film is exposed to the radiation
Exposure X-RAY = Tube current (mA) x time (sec)
Exposure γ-RAY = Source strength(Ci) x time (hour)

63
 FACTORS GOVERNING EXPOSURE
Factors Status Exposure required Remarks
KV / Ci High Less Higher KV means Higher Energy and
Low More greater intensity of radiation
Specimen Thick More Thicker specimen absorb more
Thin Less radiation (specific material)
Dense More Dense material absorb more radiation
Light Less than light material (specific material)
Film Type Fast Less Coarse Grain
Slow More Light Grain
Film High More More radiation is required to expose
Density Low Less more grains in the film
Screen With Less Radiographic screens provide
Without More intensification on interaction with
radiation
Sfd Long More Inverse square Law ( I α 1/r2 )
Short Less

64
 EXPOSURE DETERMINATION
EXPOSURE CHART METHOD
An exposure chart is a graph relating the exposure to the material thickness
X - Ray Exposure
Chart

Gamma - Ray
Exposure Chart

65
RELATIVE SPEEDS OF FILMS

66
 SELECTION OF RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
The choice of a technique for radiographic inspection of any type of
specimens a matte that is concerned basically with the following interrelated
consideration
i) The total number of exposures to be taken
ii) Selection of most suitable conditions for each exposure
(Size, Shape and material composition)

67
 STEPS FOR MAKING A RADIOGRAPH
i) Technical Considerations
a) Geometric arrangement
b) Orientation
c) Energy of radiation required
d) Film type
e) Required density of radiograph
f) Correct Exposure
ii) Preparation of the specimen
a) Surface irregularities
b) Level l - Report
iii) Visual inspection of the specimen
iv) Marking the specimen

68
Cont’d
v) Masking
vi) IQI
vii) Processing

69
 RADIOGRAPHY OF WELDS
i) Longitudinal welds
ii) Circumferential welds
iii) Nozzle welds

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Cont’d

LONGITUDINAL WELDS

71
Cont’d
CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS
Film outside Source inside Film inside Source outside

72
Cont’d
Film outside Source outside

73
Cont’d
NOZZLE WELDS
Source Central Single wall penetration

74
Cont’d
Source off centre

75
 RADIOGRAPHY OF CASTING
a) Single thickness Casting
b) Multi thickness Casting
i) Addition of Defectless material
ii) Multiple film technique
iii) Use of filters

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 INTERPRETATION
TWI

77
engr.adilwaqar1988@gmail.com
zeeshanbabar@live.com 78
X- RAY SPECTRUM

79
 GAMMA RAY SPECTRUM
(CESIUM - 137, COBALT - 60, IRIDIUM - 192)

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