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Electrical Measuring
Instruments
 Amit Mishra

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Topics to be Discussed
 Essentials of an Instrument.
 Controlling Torque.
 Damping Torque.
 Dynamometer Type Instruments.
 Digital Multimeter.
 Analog Multimeter.
 Voltmeters.
 Voltmeter Sensitivity.
 Voltmeter loading.

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 Ammeters.
 Ammeter Sensitivity.
 Ammeter Loading.
 Ohm-meters.
 Wattmeter.
 Watthour Meter.

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Measuring Instruments
Two Types :
1. Absolute instruments :-
These give the magnitude of the quantity in terms of the constants
of the instruments. Example :-
a tangent galvanometer (used for measuring electric current), it
measure current in terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection
produced by the current, radius and number of turns of the
galvanometer and the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field

2. Secondary instruments :-
These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument. Click
1. Indicating instruments (e.g., voltmeters, ammeters, etc)
2. Recording instruments (e.g., ECG).
3. Integrating instruments (e.g., energy-meter(watt-hour),Click
odometer in car (total distance covered)).

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Principle of operation
1. Magnetic effect.
2. Thermal effect.
3. Chemical effect.
4. Electrostatic effect.
5. Electromagnetic induction effect.

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Essentials of an Instrument
1. Deflecting Torque :
1. This can be produced by any of the effects of
current (or of voltage).
2. It is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity
being measured.
2. Controlling Torque : (i) Spring control, (2) Gravity
control.
1. It opposes the deflecting torque.
2. It is proportional to the deflection of the pointer.
3. Damping Torque : (i) Air friction, (ii) Fluid friction,
(iii) Eddy current.
1. It makes the moving system to come to its final Click
steady position quickly.
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Controlling Torque
 It opposes the deflecting torque.
c  
 At pointer’s zero position, the controlling torque
is zero.
 At some position , the controlling torque
becomes equal to the deflecting torque.
 The pointer then stops moving further.
 It serves two functions :
1. The pointer stops moving beyond the final deflection,
2. The pointer comes back to its zero position when the
instrument is disconnected.
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(i) Spring Control

 Most commonly used.
 One or two hairsprings made of phosphor bronze are
used.
 The outer end of this spring is fixed and the inner end is
attached with the spindle.
 When the pointer is at zero of the scale, the spring is
normal.
 As the pointer moves, the spring winds and produces an
opposing torque.
 The balance-weight balances the moving system so that
its centre of gravity coincides with the axis of rotation,
thereby reducing the friction between the pivot and
bearings.
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Double Springs

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 Two springs A and B are wound in opposite

directions.
 On deflection, one spring winds while the other
unwinds.
 To make the controlling torque directly
proportional to the angle of deflection, the springs
should have fairly large number of turns.

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 Advantages :
 Since  c   and  d  I ; at final position, c   d
Hence,  I
 These instruments have uniform scale.
 Disadvantages :
 The stiffness of the spring is a function of temperature.
 Hence, the readings given by the instruments are
temperature dependent.
 Furthermore, with the usage the spring develops an
inelastic yield which affects the zero position of the
moving system.

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(ii) Gravity Control

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 A small control weight is attached to the moving system.

 In addition, an adjustable balance weight is also attached

to make the centre of gravity pass through the spindle.

 In zero position of the pointer, this control weight is

vertical.

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 When deflected by an angle θ, the

weight exerts a force,
W sin 
 The restraining or controlling
torque is thus developed is given as

 c   W sin    L  WL sin 

Since  d  I , and  c   d
or WL sin   kI

 WL 
 I   sin 
 k 
or I  sin 
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Disadvantage :
1. These do not have uniform scale.
2. These must be used in vertical position so that the
control may operate properly.

Advantages :
1. Less expensive.
2. Unaffected by changes in temperature.
3. Free from fatigue or deterioration with time.

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