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Surveying
Surveying
Introduction
Introduction to Surveying
► Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of
determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface
and locating the points in the field.
The work of the surveyor
consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and
final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements
and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to
produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or
stakes in the proper locations in the field.
Object of Surveying
► Theprimary object of survey is the
preparation of plan of estate or buildings
roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to
measure area of field, state, nation.
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
1. Plane Surveying
The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus
the surface is obviously curved. But in plane
surveying the curvature of earth is not
taken into account. This is because plane
surveying is carried out over a small area,
so the surface of the earth is considered as
a plane. The degree of accuracy required in
this type of surveying is completely low.
Plane surveying is done on an area of less
than 250 sq.km.
2. Geodetic surveying
Ingeodetic surveying the curvature of the
earth is taken into consideration. It is
extended over a large area greater than 250
sq.km. The line joining any two points
considered as a curved line. Very refined
methods and instruments are used in this
type of surveying. In this method very high
precision or accuracy is required.
B. Secondary Classification
► Survey can be classified on different bases:
1. Based on instrument:
► Chain Survey
► Compass survey
► Plane Table survey
► Theodolite survey
► Tacheometric Survey
► Photographic survey
2. Based on methods:
►Triangulation Survey
►Traverse Survey
3. Based on Objects:
► Geological survey
► Mine survey
► Archeological Survey
► Military survey
4. Based on nature of field
►Land Survey
►Marine survey
►Astronomical survey
Other Types of Surveys:
1. Photogrammetry – mapping utilizing data obtained
by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or
satellites.
2. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
3. Control Surveying – establish a network of horizontal
and vertical monuments that serve as a reference
framework for other survey projects.
4. Engineering Surveying – providing points and
elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects.
Other Types of Surveys:
5. Topographic Surveying – collecting data and
preparing maps showing the locations of natural
man-made features and elevations of points of the
ground for multiple uses.
6. Route Surveys – topographic and other surveys for
long – narrow projects associated with Civil
Engineering projects.
Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
7. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and
the bottom of bodies of water.
Also known as bathymetric surveying.
Brief History of Surveying:
1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.
Divisions were washed away by annual floods.
“ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to
relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with
ropes having knots at unit distances).
Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian
monuments
2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed
Geometry.
Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments
– Diopter (a form of level).
Brief History of Surveying:
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to
create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land
division systems.
Surveyors held great power, had schools and a
professional organization
Developed several instruments:
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling
4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in
Europe.
Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles
up to 90° and has a graduated scale developed by an
Italian named Von Piso.
Brief History of Surveying:
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for
mapping and marking land claims caused extensive
surveying, especially by the English.
1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public
lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System
(also called the Rectangular System)
1807: United States Geological Survey founded to
establish an accurate control network and mapping
Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas
Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many
more.
Brief History of Surveying:
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced,
population increased, and land value caused
development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
Educational requirements for licensure began in the early
1990’s
Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning
using global positioning systems, construction machine
control, and lidar (scanning) mapping
Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and
geographic information systems (GIS)
Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into
the 21st century
Measurement of Distance
8. Time Measurement:
Distance is roughly determined by time intervals
of travel. Knowing the average time per km for a
person at walk or a horse, the distance traversed
may be easily obtained.
Methods of Measuring Distance
9. Chaining: Measuring distance with chain or
rope is the most accurate and common method,
called as chaining. For work of ordinary precision
a chain is used. Where great accuracy is
required, a steel tape is used.
Measurement of Distance
► Taping: applying the known length of a graduated
tape directly to a line a number of times.
► 9 Steps
1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions
2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp.
(Upper and lower plates are locked together)
3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and
magnifying glass.
4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point,
by rotating transit
5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in
6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent
screws. At this point the vernier is on 000’ and the X-
hairs are on BS
Operation of Transit A
1d Mean
0-90 (4d)4
N
L
Q
Angles and Determination of
Direction
4 Point Comparison
Bearing Azimuth
1. Numeric Value 0-90 0-360
D
Angles and Determination of
Direction
► Balancing Methods
1. Compass Rule: (Bowditch) Used when accuracy of and length
measurement is equal
► (Error Lat./Perimeter length) X Distance = Latitude Correction
► (Error Dept./Perimeter length) X Distance = Departure Correction
2. Transit Rule: Used if angles are more accurate than distances (more
accurate direction)
► Correction Latitude (Side) = (Lat. Side/Sum all Lat.) X Lat. error
► Correction Departure (Side) = (Dept. Side/Sum all Dept.) X Dept. error
3. Crandall Method: Used when larger random error exists in linear
measurements that angular. Directional adjustments from balancing
are held fixed and distances are balanced by a weighted least squares
procedure
4. Least Squares: Based on the theory of probability. Angular and linear
adjustments are made simultaneously. Hand methods are long and
complex not often done. Computer adjustment through existing
software make it feasible, which is why it is often used today
Area, Inverse, Intersection
► Once rectangular coordinates are established on all
points, the relationship to all other points is known.
You can:
1. Determine area of all or any portion
2. Determine length and direction between any 2 points
3. Locate new points by intersection
Area, Inverse, Intersection
► Area: Method is area by cross multiplication
Using example from traverse lecture:
NA X EB + NB X EC + NC X ED + ND X EE + NE X EF + NF X EA = Sum N
EA X NB + EB X NC + EC X ND + ED X NE + EE X NF + EF X NA = Sum E
A 10000.0000 5000.0000
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
E 9854.7405 4760.8417
F 10070.8565 4583.9559
A 10000.0000 5000.0000
N = 186,116,759.8
E = 185,971,439.3
C 9938.7277 5298.7122
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121 738.3132
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
A 10000.0000 5000.0000
551.0844 439.6010
Area, Inverse, Intersection
► Intersection: Determination of unknown point
location with directions from two points known
1. Determine difference in coordinates
2. Plot points and line projections
3. Set up dual formulas (as Latitude and Departure)
4. Solve for length
5. Compute coordinate as sideshot
C 9938.7277 5298.7122
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121 738.3132
Area, Inverse, Intersection
► Example: What are the coordinates of the point of
intersection of line C-F and D-A.
Azimuth D-A = 3834’46”.
Coordinates of D: N = 9448.9156, E = 4560.3990
C 9938.7277 5298.7122
F 10070.8565 4583.9559
132.1288 714.7563
Horizontal and Vertical Curves
► Horizontal curves are the basis for most Right of Ways:
Go through formulas
Angle at PC and PT are always 90
Given any 2 elements T, L, C, R, D; the remainder can be completed
Example: Horizontal curve, PC STA 201+00
D = 3615’00”
R = 1200.00’
T=
L=
C=
Seg =
PI STA =
PT STA =
Horizontal and Vertical Curves
► Vertical Curves – Two major methods used to calculate
vertical curves: Tangent offset and Equation of Parabola
Information needed:
1. Grade or slope on each side of curve
2. Elevation and station of PVI
3. Curve length (Horizontal distance PVC – PVT)
Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Tangent Offset Method
► Procedure:
1. Compute the elevation of the PVC and PVT
2. Compute the elevation of Chord midpoint
3. Compute offset to curve at midpoint
4. Determine total number of stations covered
5. Determine tangent elevations at stations
6. Compute curve offset at stations
7. Combine data and determine vertical curve elevations
Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Equation of Parabola Method
► Equation: r = g2 - g1 / L
g1 = initial grade
r = change in grade/sta.
g2 = final grade
L = length of curve in stations
► Procedure:
1. Compute PVC and PVT elevations
2. Calculate total change in grade/station
3. Insert data to chart and compute final curve elevations
Terms:
1. Datum – any level surface to which elevations are referenced
2. Mean Sea Level (MSL) – the average height of the surface of the sea for
all stages of the tide over a 19 year period at 26 tide stations along
Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf
3. National Geodetic Vertical Datum – nationwide reference surface for
elevations throughout the U.S. – made available by National Geodetic
Survey (NGS), based on 1929 adjustment.
4. Benchmark – relatively permanent object bearing a marked point whose
elevation above or below an adopted datum.
Leveling
► Most often Mean Sea Level is used
MSL varies along the coasts
Pacific is almost 2’ higher than Atlantic and Gulf
► U.S.System: National Geodetic Vertical Datum of
1929
Has been used as reference for extensive network of BM’s
BM’s are periodically adjusted as to elevation
► Best to check with USGS or NGS for current elevation of a BM and
also best to check between two known BM’s to verify elevation
difference.
Leveling
► The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth a level
line is a curved line, normal () at all points to plumbline
Line of sight is only normal at point of instrument
A line with a sight distance of 1 mile using the earth’s radius as 3959
mile, curvature change is 0.667 feet.
3. Data Non-Geographic/Aspatial/Attribute
4. Human Operators and Institutional Infrastructure
GIS Data Structures
► Vector – Made up of points, lines, and polygons
GIS Data Structures
► Raster (Grids) – Made up of pixels of computer screen
GIS Data Structures
► DEM (Digital Elevation Model) – Digital terrain
representation technique, where elevation values are
stored in raster cells
Future of Surveying
► Major advances in future
Remote Sensing (Government and Military)
Arial Photographs
► Design Professions
Every 10 years, must justify to Legislature that need for our
license exists
Surveyor have ULTIMATE liability
Standards → Laws
Continuing Education – Enough points every 2 years