Learning Objectives

• 1. Apply and explain the difference between

the SI and the AE systems of units
• 2. Convert a value in one set of units into an
equivalent value in another set of units
• 3. Apply the concepts of dimensional
consistency to determine the validity of an
equation or function
• 4. Employ an appropriate number of
significant figures in your calculations
 ROLE OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING
WHAT IS A CHEMICAL PROCESS?
• A chemical process is a combination of steps in which
starting materials are converted into desired products
using equipment and conditions that facilitate that
conversion.
• PROCESS CATEGORIES
In a batch process, an allotment of starting material
is introduced into the process, and a sequence of
steps to treat that material is started and finished
within a certain period of time, often within the
same piece of equipment. The process is then
interrupted, the processed material is removed,
another allotment of the starting material is
introduced, and the sequence of steps is repeated
• Example OF BATCH : materials are loaded into a
reactor, a reaction is carried out in the reactor,
and then the final materials are removed.
• A continuous process operates without
interruption in the flows and reactions of the
process. The starting material enter
continuously, is usually subjected to various
steps by moving from one piece of equipment
to another, and exits the process continuously
• Example OF CONTINUOUS: materials continually
flow into and out of a reactor, while the reaction
proceeds as the material moves through the
reactor.
• A steady-state process is one in which none of
the process characteristics (temperatures,
flow rates, pressures, and so forth) change
with time. A process that is not steady-state is
termed unsteady-state or transient.
• To clarify, when a steady-state process is
observed at a certain point in time and then
observed again a few minutes later, no change
is seen
 EXAMPLE
• A plant containing a reactor is being started up (being
put into operation). In the startup phase, with fluid
flowing in all of the streams, the temperatures of the
reactor and some of the streams are seen to be
changing with time as they move toward the values at
which they will eventually be held. The chemical
composition of the material coming from the reactor
is also changing with time in response to the changing
reactor conditions. The startup phase is over when the
temperatures and compositions reach their desired
values and no longer change with time. Classify the
startup phase and the period after the startup phase
in terms of being batch or continuous and steady-state
or unsteady-state.
 SOLUTION

• During both phases, the process is continuous,

because the flows and operation continue
without interruption or “starting over.” During
the startup phase, the process is at unsteady-
state, because some of the process
parameters are changing with time. After the
startup phase, the process is at steady state,
because there are no changes with time.
REPRESENTING CHEMICAL PROCESSES USING PROCESS
DIAGRAMS
• 1. Block Diagrams provides a simple
representation of a chemical process in which a
box or block is used to represent either a single
equipment item or a combination of equipment
items that collectively accomplish one of the
principal steps in the process.
 Process Flow Diagrams (PFD)
• provides more detail than a block diagram and is
a standard method for documenting engineering
designs.
• This type of diagram shows the arrangement and
interconnection of all the major pieces of
equipment and all flow streams, and the
equipment is represented by symbols or icons
that “look like” the actual equipment.
• but minor equipment, such as pumps and valves,
may or may not be included in the PFD
Typical symbols used in process flow diagrams and piping
and instrumentation diagrams
 Steps for Constructing a
Process Flow Diagram
• 1. Identify streams entering the process (“feed
streams”) and exiting the process (“product streams”).
• 2. Identify key process steps and major equipment
items needed for the process.
• 3. Determine the symbol to be used for each major
piece of equipment.
• 4. Draw the symbols on the flow diagram and connect
them with appropriate stream lines. The general flow
of the diagram should be from left to right.
• 5. Label major pieces of equipment, usually using
abbreviations of a few letters and numbers
• 6. Label streams with a number and/or letter
• 7. Include a stream table, if desired, that contains
information about each stream
 STRATEGIES FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS

• 1. Define the problem.

• 2. List possible solutions.
• 3. Evaluate and rank the possible solutions.
• 4. Develop a detailed plan for the most
attractive solution(s).
• 5. Re-evaluate the plan to check desirability.
• 6. Implement the plan.
• 7. Check the results.
 THE USE OF TEAMS IN SOLVING PROBLEMS

• Ingredients for a Successful Team

– 1. A clear mission or set of goals
– 2. A plan for attacking problems
– 3. Clearly defined roles
– 4. Clear communication
– 5. Well-defined decision procedures
– 6. Balanced participation
– 7. Established ground rules
– 8. Awareness of group processes
 Stages of Team Development
• 1. Forming Organization of the group, setting of rules
and procedures, introductions of members and
learning a little about each other.
• 2. Storming Emergence of conflict caused by different
perspectives, experiences, backgrounds and views. This
is the time when most groups will fail.
• 3. Conforming Coming to the agreement to disagree;
tolerance of varying views and opinions and
perspectives. Individuals accept the team, their roles
on the team, and the individuality of the various team
members.
• 4. Performing Utilization of individual differences for
the benefit of the group and the work of the group.
Varying perspectives and differences are viewed as
advantages rather than hindrances.
 Roles within a Team Structure
• Leader/Coordinator The leader is responsible for calling group
meetings, handling or assigning administrative details, planning
team activities, and overseeing preparation of reports and
presentations.
• Observer/Summarizer This individual is responsible for observing
the operation of the group and summarizing key issues.
• Data Gatherer This individual or group of individuals is responsible
for gathering data needed for the team to accomplish its goals. Data
gathering is typically accomplished between team meetings. It may
take the form of gathering quantitative data or may consist of
qualitative observations, and the like.
• Devil’s Advocate Having a devil’s advocate on the team is useful in
probing and evaluating the work of the team. Formal recognition
and use of this role turns what might be perceived as a negative
contribution into a positive and important part o the total group
effort.
• Recorder The recorder writes down the group’s decisions and edits
the group’s report.
 Describing Physical Quantities
• UNITS All physical quantities have a numerical
value (e.g., 6.51) and a unit (indicating what there
are 6.51 of, such as feet, grams, seconds, etc.)
• Systems of units
– Systeme Internationale d’Unites, or SI system- a
standardized set of units within the metric system
• metric system -smaller divisions of a base unit
measurement and larger combinations of that
base unit are related to that original base unit by
powers of ten smaller divisions of a base unit
 Conversion Factors
• Is a relationship expressed by an equation where
the entries on both sides of the equation are the
same quantity but expressed in different units
• Combined and Defined Units are derived as
combinations of the base units
• Examples of Combined Units for Three
Measurement
System Systems
cgs System SI Systems American System
density g/cm3 kg/m3 lbm/ f t3
velocity cm/s m/s f t/s
acceleration cm/s2 m/s2 f t/s2
volumetric flow cm3/s m3/s f t3/s
rate
 What are units and dimensions and how do they
differ?
• Dimensions are the general expression of a
characteristic of measurement such as length,
time, mass, temperature, and so on;
• units are the means of explicitly expressing
the dimensions, such as feet or centimeters for
length, or hours or seconds for time.
• Dimensions and their respective units are
classified as fundamental or derived
• Fundamental (or basic) dimensions/units are
those that can be measured independently and
are sufficient to describe most physical
quantities such as length, mass, time, and
temperature.
• Derived dimensions/units are those that can be
developed in terms of the fundamental
dimensions/units.
• SI Units
• When quantities with units are added or
subtracted, they need to be expressed in the
same units. For example,
7 in. + 2 in. = 9 in.
6 cm – 1 cm = 5 cm
• On the other hand, 7 in. + 2 cm cannot be
evaluated until both of the measurements of
length are expressed in the same units.
 EXAMPLES
• 1. Change 400 in3/day to cm3/min.
• Solution

• In this example note that not only are the numbers raised
to a power, but the units also are raised to the same
power.
• 2. Nanosize materials have become the subject of
intensive investigation in the last decade because of their
potential use in semiconductors, drugs, protein detectors,
and electron transport.
• Nanotechnology is the generic term that refers to the
synthesis and application of such small particles. An
example of a semiconductor is ZnS with a particle
diameter of 1.8 nm. Convert this value to (a) decimeters
(dm) and (b) inches (in.).
• Solution

• A Conversion Involving Both lbm and lbf

• Example: What is the potential energy in (ft)(lbf)
of a 100 lb drum hanging 10 ft above the surface
of the Earth with reference to the surface of the
Earth?
• Solution: The first thing to do is read the
problem carefully. What are the unknown
quantities? The potential energy (PE) is
unknown
• What are the known quantities? The mass and
the height of the drum are known.
• How are they related? You have to look up the
relation unless you recall it from physics:
Potential energy = PE = mgh
The 100 lb means 100 lb mass; let g = acceleration of
gravity = 32.2 ft/s2.
• Now substitute the numerical values of the
variables into the equation and perform the
necessary unit conversions.

Notice that in the ratio of 32.2 ft/s2 divided by

32.174[(ft)(lbm)]/[(s2)(lbf)], the numerical values
are essentially equal
 Dimensional Consistency
• basic principle exists that equations must be
dimensionally consistent. What the principle
means is that each term in an equation must
have the same net dimensions and units as
every other term to which it is added or
subtracted or equated.
• dimensional considerations can be used to
help identify the dimensions and units of
terms or quantities in an equation
 Significant Figures
• measurement should include three pieces of
information:
1. The magnitude of the variable being
measured
2. Its units
3. An estimate of its uncertainty
• The number of significant figures for a number
is a direct indication of its accuracy.
Significant Figure Examples
 Assignment
• Problems
• 1. Identify the number of significant figures in each of the
following numbers:
a. 1.0 b. 0.353 c. 1000.
d. 23 e. 1000 f. 1000.0
• 2. What is the correct sum and the number of significant digits
when you add
a. 5750 and 10.3? b. 2.000 and 0.22?
• 3. Convert the flow rate of 87.0 kg/min to the units of gal/hr,
giving the answer in the proper number of significant figures.
• 4. A computer chip made in Japan was calculated to cost $78. The
calculation to convert the price from yen to dollars was made as
follows:

Is the number of significant digits shown in the answer correct?

• 5. What is the answer to 78.3 – 3.14 – 0.388?