Crime and deviance

with theory and

methods
 1. Theories of crime and
deviance
Key questions: Key information

1. What is crime and  Definitions of crime and

deviance? deviance, social construction
and biological explanations.
2. Why do people commit  Functionalism – Durkheim &
Merton
crime?
 Subcultural strain theory
 Labelling theory
3. What happens if a person  Marxism and Neo-Marxism
is labelled as a criminal? (white collar crime)
 Left and Right Realism
4. Are crime statistics
valid?
 Crime Deviance Deviant not
criminal
Any act which breaks Behaviour which Deviant and
the laws of society, moves away from Burping, not criminal
such as murder or rape. conventional queuing
norms and values Rape,
Social control is murder,
such as burping Criminal not deviant
enforced by agencies paedophilia
and farting in
such as police and the Speeding, parking on
courts. public.
yellow lines

Biological explanations Definitions and

Early criminologists like explanations Crime and deviance as
Cesare Lombroso sort to relative
find physical criminal
characteristics like long Crime as socially constructed
Crime and deviance is
arms or sloping
If what is consider to be crime relative (changing) in
foreheads. Sociologists
and deviance changes it can’t relation to time, place
find such ‘born bad’
be inherently wrong but must and culture. What one
determinism dangerous
be culturally specific. society may see as a
and prefer to normalise
This means crime and deviance crime another may not,
crime by reminding us
is socially constructed i.e. such as polygamy (many
that we all commit crime
created and defined by the wives). Other examples
and there are social
people of that society and not are homosexuality and
factors which influence
universal. suicide.
our behaviour.
 Durkheim – Key ideas
1. Crime is inevitable and
necessary to society.
2. Crime has positive
functions.
3. The perfect amount
of crime will keep
society healthy and
avoid anomie
(Normlessness)
Criticisms
 What is the perfect amount
of crime?
Explaining the functions of
crime doesn’t explain what
caused them in the first place.
Murder maybe functional for
society but what about the
victim?
Crime and society Positive functions of
crime
Society is only healthy when
social order is maintained 1. Re-marking social
through the police and boundaries – affirms
courts. We need a small social norms and
amount of crime to remind values.
us of what we believe in.
2. Media coverage – as
Only a small minority will be
a warning to others.
self-interested and commit
crime. 3. Social bonds –
strengthened as we
unite in disapproval.
Functionalism
on crime 4. Safety Value – a
little bit of deviance
reduces more serious
Society of saints problems –
Prostitution – Kingley
Imagine there was no Davis.
crime or deviance, even
the most slight slip like 5. Malfunctioning
coughing without putting society – theft, drug
your hand over your use and truancy alert
mouth would become a us to other social
crime. problems in society.
Merton - Key idea
1. The goals of
People engage in society – American
deviant behaviour Deviance is the
Dream
when they are result of the
unable to achieve strain between
socially approved 2. Your legitimate
goals. means of achieving
them

1. Conformity Strain produces

Five
Most of America not
adaptations
criminal or deviant
Deviant adaptations
frustration which creates a
pressure to deviate, what
Merton calls the strain to
anomie.

Innovation Retreatism Explanation

Criminal behaviour Habitual drug users
as an adaptation and alcoholics lower class and
ethnic minorities are
more likely to
commit criminal acts
Ritualism Rebellion because of their
People in dead end position in the social
Karl Marx and structure.
jobs. Martin Luther King
 TYPE Goal of Means Type
Success
Conformity Accepts Legitimate Most people
(Normal)
Innovation Accepts Illegitimate Gangsters (Tony
(Criminal) Montana)
Ritualism Rejects Legitimate People in dead end
(Deviant) jobs.
Retreatism Rejects Illegitimate Habitual drug user
(Deviant) or drunk
Rebellion Rejects for Illegitimate Karl Marx, Martin
(Deviant) alternative Luther King,

Criticisms
 Why don’t all lower class people turn to crime?
 Can only account for utilitarian crime (money) what about gang violence, rape and
Graffiti?
 What about other factors like class, gender, ethnicity and sexuality?
 Subcultural group Albert Cohen – Status
frustration
A group with its own Cloward and Ohlin –
distinctive norms and A Subcultural strain theory Opportunity structures
values, sometimes which argues lower class people
A Subcultural strain
although not always are frustrated because they
theory like Cohen but
deviant. want to be successful but lack
more concerned about
the qualifications and skills to do
the different types of
Contemporary examples so. They solve this frustration
crimes groups commit.
by rejecting society and creating
The Street gangs living They conclude where
their own norms and values in a
in the Favelas of Rio you live dictates the
gang. Here they achieve status
and the gangs of South type of criminal activity
through non-utilitarian crimes
Africa show that often available to you. Criminal
like violence and graffiti.
criminal groups are not subcultures are
rejecting societies available in areas of
norms and values but Subcultural strain criminal hierarchy.
are in fact conforming theories Conflict subcultures
to their own. arise due to low social
cohesion and high
Walter Miller – Lower class subcultures population turnover.
Retreatists subcultures
Not a strain subculture, each social class doesn’t feel any are the result of being
strain but just has different focal concerns which lead to unsuccessful in society
different criminal activity. The lower class experience a and the other two
lack of excitement at work which leads to the desire to subcultures.
look for excitement in things like joy-riding.
 Overview
Lower-class feel the strain
Strain theory Robert Merton and commit utilitarian
crime (money)

Lower-class feel the

strain but start
Albert Cohen subculture and commit
Subcultural non-utilitarian crime
Strain theory
Lower-class feel the
Cloward and strain but what crime
Ohlin they commit depends
on the area they live in

Lower-class doesn’t
Subcultural feel the strain each
Walter Miller
theory subcultural group has
different values
 Interactionism Howard Becker Labelling process
Doesn’t focus on the Focuses on the process of a 1. A label is attached
structures of society but person and act getting by police and courts.
how people and society labelled as deviant. He
interact and how this argues that no act is 2. Label becomes a
affects criminal intrinsically deviant but master status –
behaviour. relies on its context to overrides other
determine its acceptability. status as sibling,
Examples: nudity, injecting friend etc.
Deviancy amplification oneself even murder. 3. The labelled person
spiral accepts the label –
Interactionism – because how we see
This idea says that ourselves relies on
sensationalist reporting
Labelling theory
how others see us.
by the newspapers
distorts the act of crime Stanley Cohen 4. Self-fulfilling
or deviance and prophecy – whether
Cohen studied how the media
increases public the label was true or
has often demonised youth
awareness. Public not we act in
culture. This happened to
pressure is put on the accordance with it.
mods and Rockers in 1964
police and courts to act. This confirms
who were seen as modern day
This creates a moral peoples beliefs
folk devils who threatened
panic where certain acts about the label being
social order. His research
or groups are seen as a true.
found that actual acts of
threat to social order. deviance were minimal.
 Blue collar crime White collar crime Corporate crime
Crimes committed by Crimes committed by Crimes carried out on behalf of
manual factory workers office workers a company such as tax evasion or
(working class), these (middle/upper class) toxic waste dumping.
are street crimes like like fraud, these are
Occupational crime
theft which are in often hidden from
public view. public view. Crimes carried out at the
expense of companies like fraud.
Case study – Enron
False accounting and White collar crime
White collar crime
reports of high profit
allowed president Very difficult to prosecute
Kenneth Lay to Case study – Guinness affair due to problems of who is
borrow $74 million responsible and who is a
from a company False claims of success led to victim. Much white collar
before it was made high share prices and company crime is not dealt with
bankrupt. 20,000 directors making millions. criminally but
creditors were owed Gerald Ronson received a one administratively by
an estimated $67 - year sentence in Ford (open external agencies like the
billion, most received prison) and was released on EPA (Environmental
less than 20 cents for parole after serving about 6 Protection Agency) and the
every dollar they months. He is still a successful Trading Standards Agency.
were owed. 19,000 businessman and one of Only serious cases go to
people lost their jobs Britain's 100 richest people. court.
and savings.
 Key idea
The Law and the
criminal justice system
is another tool used by
the ruling class to
serve their interests
and maintain a position
of power.
Weaknesses
 Very deterministic, not
all working class commit
crime.
 Switzerland and Japan
are capitalist but have low
crime rates.
Prosecutions against
companies and the ruling
class do happen.
Left Realists say most
working class crime is
committed against working
class people not the state.
Criminolgenic Capitalism The state and law making
Crime is inevitable in Capitalism.  All laws serve the ruling
The working class commit class.
utilitarian and non-utilitarian
Most law is based on
crimes because of poverty,
protecting private
constant advertising, alienation
property.
and a lack of control. Even the
ruling class feel the pressure to The working class and
commit crime and get ahead. ethnic minorities are
punished harshly while the
crimes of the powerful go
Marxism on crime unnoticed.
Ideological functions of law
Strengths Laws don’t just punish but
perform functions to keep
Shows a link between capitalism stable. Health and
law and the safety laws keep the working
interests of the class able to work. Seeing crime
ruling class. as a working class problem
diverts it away from capitalism.
Highlights selective Seeing criminals as disturbed
enforcement. also disguises the true nature of
crime.
 A fully social theory of
deviance – combining Marxism
and labelling theory
Ian Taylor, Paul Walton and
Jock Young (1973)
1. The wider origins of the
deviant act.
2. The immediate origins of
the deviant act.
3. The act itself.
4. The immediate origins of
social reaction.
5. The wider origins of
social reaction.
6. The effects of labelling.
Neo-Marxism on crime
Policing the crisis – Stuart Hall
1. The 1970’s was a period of considerable
social crisis in Britain, the result of an
international downturn in capitalist economies.
2. This turmoil was shown in a number of inner-
city riots, conflict in Northern Ireland and a
high level of strikes. The government was
searching for a group that could be
scapegoated, to draw attention onto them and
away from the crisis.
3. Mugging – which according to the police was
more likely to be carried out by those from
African-Caribbean backgrounds.
4. Media outrage at the extent of muggings,
linked to racism amongst the Metropolitan
police.
5. The need to find scapegoats and the ease
with which young men from African-Caribbean's
backgrounds could be blamed.
6. A sense of injustice amongst ethnic
minorities against the police led to much
hostility between them and further arrests.
 Key ideas
 The root cause of crime is
biology and poor socialisation
as people make a rational
choice to commit crime.
 The solution is more
formal social control such
as harsher prison sentences,
zero tolerance policies and
more CCTV.
Criticisms
 Doesn’t explain white
collar crime or
domestic violence.
 Ignores issues like
poverty.
 Scapegoats the
underclass.
 Overstates the role of
rationality.
 Crime displaced to
other areas.
Biology
Wilson and Hernstein Charles Murray (1990)
suggest some people are
Argues most crime is
innately more strongly
committed by the
predisposed to commit
underclass (unemployed).
crime than others.
A recent upsurge in lone-
Especially those who have
parent families has led to
personality traits like
poor socialisation and
aggression, risk taking and
encouraged these people
low impulse control.
to be welfare dependant.
Right Realism Rational Choice
theory
Tackling crime
Ron Clarke (1980)
Make crime less attractive to suggests that people
criminals by (formal rationalise their
control):- choice to commit crime
• Zero tolerance – harsh by weighing up the
sentences ‘broken window’. cost vs benefits. If
the benefits (money)
• Target hardening – make it outweigh the costs
difficult to access private (prison) then they will
and public buildings. commit crime.
• More surveillance – CCTV.
 Key ideas
 The root cause of crime is
Relative deprivation,
marginalisation and exclusion
in modern society.
The solution is more
informal social control such
as better housing, more job
opportunities and more
democratic policing.
Criticisms
 Doesn’t explain white
collar crime or
domestic violence.
 Minimum wage and
housing conditions have
never been better.
 M/C could be relatively
deprived and
individualistic, yet don’t
commit as much crime.
 Impossible to get rid of
relative deprivation.
The offenders
Young and Lea argue that
most crime is committed by
W/C against the W/C. This
is due to discontent caused
by relative deprivation
(judging your status by that
of others) and individualism
(being self-interested).
Left Realism
Tackling crime
Make things better for people
by (informal social control):
• Giving them housing
conditions to be proud of.
• Better job opportunities.
• A better relationship
between police and public,
being more democratic will
help the flow of
information.
Marginalisation
Marginalised groups are
those who lack clear
goals or
representation. Young
W/C are powerless and
unrepresented which
leads to violence and
rioting.
Modern society and
exclusion
A lack of jobs for the
W/C and being out
priced of the property
market has left many
socially excluded. Jock
young says we live in a
‘bulimic society’ where
we are exposed to a
large variety of
consumer products
which the W/C cannot
purchase.
 2. The social distribution of crime
Key questions Key information

1. Do crime statistics give a  Crime statistics – police, BCS

true picture of crime? and self-report study.
 Gender and crime
2. Are people from different  Ethnicity and crime
age groups, classes,  Age and social class
ethnicities and gender  Location – Environmental
groups treated equally criminology
when it comes to crime?

3. Is there any link between

location and criminal
activity?
 Official statistics
Complied from
government departments
like the police and
courts.
Reported crime
A crime, which the
public has reported
to the police. (90%
of all crime the
police deal with is
reported to them by
the public).
Official crime statistics are
the tip of the iceberg, BCS
and self-report studies
show there is more crime
than what can be seen on
the surface. This is known
as the dark figure of crime
(what is recorded vs.
reported).
Recorded crime Lack of crime reporting
A crime, which has Crimes may not be reported due
been recorded by to:-
the police as a
crime. (Only 40%  fear of reprisal.
of reported crime
is then recorded Lack of awareness (fraud).
due to
discretionary Fear it may not be taken
powers of the seriously.
police).
 Crime is too trivial.
Crime statistics
Inaccurate picture of
crime
 White collar crime dealt
with administratively.
 Only serious crimes
from incidences is
recorded.
Rules for counting always
change.
Lack of recording makes
clear up rates look higher.
 British Crime Survey The study is based on a
representative sample of adults
A victim study which asks Self-report studies
living in private households in
people if they have been a
England and Wales. In 2002 over Anonymous
victim of a crime and the
36,000 surveys were conducted. questionnaires which
circumstances of that
Certain crimes are excluded due ask respondents if they
crime. It was conducted
to low reporting such as murder, have committed a crime
every two years from
drug possession or dealing, fraud, over the past year.
1982 -2000 then every
offences against businesses.
year since.
They are usually based
Trends and patterns on self-completed
BCS and Self- questionnaires or
 BCS says 10.7 million crimes
committed, OS (4.7 million. report studies interviews which
contain a list of
The majority of crime is BCS: includes unreported offences.
property related. and unrecorded crime but Respondents are asked
 Violent crime accounts for only 75% is comparable with to highlight which they
1/5 of all crime police statistics. have committed. Self
report studies show us
 Overall crime peaked in 1995 Self-report: Mainly street that most people
and has declined ever since. crime (working class) commit crime at some
excludes hidden crimes like point in their lives so
 Men aged 16-24 most likely domestic violence. Only
to be a victim of violence. crime is normal.
gives a small picture of
criminal activity.
 Key facts
 Girls and women appear
to commit less crime.
 4/5 convicted offenders
in Britain are male.
 Women more likely to be
convicted of theft and
property offences.
 Men more likely to
convicted of violence and
sexual offences.
Liberation thesis
Freda Alder (1975) argues
that if feminists are right
and women only commit less
crime because of patriarchy
then greater equality should
see a rise in women
offenders. This equality will
bring about more female
offenders for violence and
white collar crime.
The Chivalry thesis Feminism
This argues that most They argue the criminal
police, judges and justice system is
magistrates are men and patriarchal and is bias
men are socialised to be against women when they
chivalrous to women. step outside gender roles.
Roger Hood found women Women are judged more
are 1/3 less likely to be harshly for having
jailed than men in similar promiscuous sex and
cases. being bad mothers rather
than the seriousness of
Gender and crime their crimes. This is
what happens in rape
cases where the victims
Explanations for sexual activity is always
female criminality on trial.
Feminist - Control Functionalist -Sex role
theory theory
Women commit less The way girls are
crimes because men socialised to be quiet and
control women through demur doesn’t encourage
domestic roles, fear of them to behave
being a victim and aggressively or break
financial dependence. the law.
 Women demonised in the media
Myra Hindley
Sentenced to 30 years in prison for
her part in the murder and torture of
5 children along with Ian Brady. The
media widely reported her true crime
as not having any motherly instincts
as a women. Newspapers still to this
day publish a sinister picture taken of
her 30 years ago because it portrays
her as a cold sadistic killer.
Gender and crime
Postmodernity and masculinity
Others have suggested that
previously jobs in manufacturing
allowed men to express their
masculinity. An increase in
service sector jobs like bouncers
allows men to express their
masculinity through violence,
drug dealing and racketeering.
Maxine Carr
Was convicted and sent to prison for
providing a false alibi for boyfriend Ian
Huntley who murdered Holly wells and
Jessica Chapman in 2002. Maxine had
nothing directly to do with the murders but
many protested for reintroduction of the
death penalty outside the court. The media
had a definitive role in demonising Maxine
Carr by producing sensationalist stories of
her past.
Why do men commit crime?
James Messerschmidt (1993) makes a link
between male offending and masculinity. He
says all men want the dominant hegemonic
masculinity which is achieved through
domination of work, women and sexuality. He
argues that lower class men and ethnic
minorities lack the resources to achieve this
masculinity so commit crime in order to
achieve it.
 Key facts
Official statistics say black
people are:
 7 times more likely to be
stopped and searched.
 3 ½ times more likely to
be arrested.
 5 times more likely to be
in prison than their white
counterparts.
 Victim studies say black
people are more likely to
be identified as
offenders & most crime
is intra –ethnic meaning
it takes place among
rather than between
ethnic groups.
 Self-report studies
conclude that black
people have similar rates
of offending to whites if
not lower.
Ethnicity and the criminal 1. Policing
justice system
Many allegations of
oppressive policing
from minority ethnic
2.Stop and search communities are made.
Lots of stop an search is
perhaps due to racism
3. Arrests and
and the targeting of
cautions
ethnic minorities.
More likely to be
arrested and cautioned
Ethnicity and perhaps due to a
mistrust of police and
crime
not admitting to the
offence.
4. Prosecution &
conviction
5. Sentencing and Prison
Crown prosecution
Service more likely to Custodial sentences more
drop cases against ethnic likely to be given to black
minorities. Black and offenders. Blacks and
Asian defendants are less Asians over-represented
likely to be found guilty. in prisons and more likely
to be given longer
sentences.
 Explaining differences in
offending
Left realism
Ethnic minorities commit more
crime because racism in wider
has caused them to be
marginalised, coupled with
economic exclusion such as
high unemployment and poor
housing. Left realists don’t
believe that racism in the
police can account for higher
crime because black people
have a higher offending rate
than Asians.
Stephen Lawrence
The death of Stephen
Lawrence in 1993 by a white
gang caused outcry as police
botched the investigation.
The inquiry called the
Macpherson report declared
institutional racism in the
police.
Neo-Marxist - Paul Gilroy
Black people commit more
crime because they resent
the cultural experience of
colonialism i.e. being taken
over and having black slaves
sent to Britain to work. This
experience causes
resentment in young black
males which makes them
commit crime.
Ethnicity and
crime
Victimisation
Police recorded 61,000
racists incidents while the
BCS reports 184,000 many
go unreported. People from
mixed ethnic backgrounds
were more likely to be
victims of crimes.
Neo-Marxist - Stuart
Hall et al (Policing the
crisis)
Combines Marxism and
Labelling theory.
Economic conditions in
the 1990’s were bad,
government look for a
scapegoat.
Young black muggers
are labelled and a moral
panic is created about
their behaviour in the
media.
Young black males
commit no more crime
than any other group
but labelling and the
economy makes it seem
like they do.
 Key facts Functionalism – Age and
class
 Young, working class are
more likely to commit Functionalists like Merton
criminal acts than older, say young working class
middle class. people commit crime because
they strive for success but
 A typical prisoner in the lack the necessary
U.K will be under 30 and educational skills and
working class. qualifications. They want
 Offending rises steeply the goal of success but must
from 10-18 then declines achieve it illegitimately.
sharply after 24. (Innovation)
Subcultural theory – Age
and class
Young working class people
join gangs because they are
frustrated at their status in
mainstream society. They
solve this by rejecting
mainstream norms and values,
joining a gang and achieving a
status through non-
utilitarian crimes.

Age – class and

Right realism – class
Labelling theory – crime
age and class Right realists like
Charles Murray believe
Young working Left realism – Age and class that single parent
class people Most crime is committed by working families fail to socialise
especially boys are class people against working class their children
more likely to be people. Perhaps because relative effectively due to a lack
stopped and deprivation, individualism and that of male role models,
searched and fact we live in a bulimic society (the they also grow up to be
labelled as idea that we are exposed to consumer welfare dependant.
criminals by the products but cannot consume them).
police and courts.
 Marxism
Blue collar crime
The working class are no more
criminals than anyone else, however Crimes committed
the law protects the bourgeoisie so by manual factory
the working class become easier to workers (working
criminalise. The working class get class), these are
street crimes like White collar crime
harsher punishments compared with
those who commit white collar crimes. theft which are in Crimes committed by
public view. office workers
(middle/upper class)
White collar crime like fraud, these are
often hidden from
Very difficult to prosecute Social class and
public view.
due to problems of who is crime
responsible and who is a
victim. Much white collar
crime is not dealt with
criminally but Case study – Guinness affair
administratively by False claims of success led to high share prices
external agencies like the and company directors making millions. Gerald
EPA (Environmental Ronson received a one -year sentence in Ford (open
Protection Agency) and the prison) and was released on parole after serving
Trading Standards Agency. about 6 months. He is still a successful
Only serious cases go to businessman and one of Britain's 100 richest
court. people.
 Key ideas Shaw and McKay
Did a study of delinquency in
 There is a link between
Chicago (1927-33). They
where offenders live and
divided the city of into five
crimes committed in that
zones, drawn at two-mile
area.
intervals, radiating outwards
in concentric circles from the
 Environmental criminology
CBD (Central Business
is concerned with mapping
District).
the spatial distribution of
offenders and offences.
Location –
Environmental
Criminology
The least delinquents
live in Zone 5 – 1.8 %
mainly commuter zone
with expensive houses.
The most delinquents
live in Zone 1 – 9.8% -
deteriorating housing
and factories, high
population turnover
They found the
delinquency living rates
declined from zone 1 to
5. They argue that
zone 1 has the highest
rate of delinquents
because it is
characterised by a
high population
turnover and mixture
of different cultures.
They called this the
zone of transition
They concluded that
the zone of transition
had social
disorganisation (low
social cohesion and
little sense of
community) making it
a breading ground for
deviants.
 Explanations
Area offending rates in Britain
Studies in Britain contradict
Opportunity theory
Shaw and Mckay and the idea of
determining crime by location. Crimes will be committed in locations where
Some studies show higher targets are attractive to criminals meaning
numbers of offenders living in it has a high monetary value and can easily
council housing estates rather be transported and sold. Coupled with
than city centres (Morris 1957). accessibility meaning if physical access is
One study of two council estates easy and chances of being observed are low.
separated by a road showed one
had 300% more offenders living
Location – Routine activities
there than the other (Bottoms,
Mawby and Xanthos 1989) . Environmental theory
Criminology
Argues that crimes are
likely to happen in
They say most Cognitive mapping (1984)
particular places
offenders commit Patricia and Paul Brantingham argue because of three things:
crimes in areas they that we have cognitive maps inside There are likely
are familiar with; out heads which outline our offenders in the area,
because of an perception of the geography of our attractive targets and
offender’s awareness local area. These maps contain an absence of capable
of space, and places we are familiar with such as guardians like property
opportunities for home, school or work, places of owners.
crime. entertainment etc.
 3. Crime in contemporary society
Key questions: Key information

1. Has crime become global?  Globalisation and crime

 Mass media and crime
2. How does the media report  Green crime
criminal activity?  Human rights
 State crimes
3. What are green crimes and
how are they dealt with?

4. What rights due all human

beings have?

5. How can we stop state crimes

when we have no world police?
 Globalisation
Definition: The way in
which we seem to live in
an increasingly ‘shrinking
world’, where societies
are becoming more
interconnected and
dependant on each other.
Global crime (1 trillion)
 Arms trafficking
 Smuggling immigrants
 Trafficking women
and children
 Sex tourism crime is now longer local but
 Cyber-crimes –
identity theft and
child porn
 Drugs trade gone global, it has franchised
 Money laundering
parts of the globe – McMafia
Transnational crime
Greater communication and
travel have made the drugs
industry extend beyond
national boundaries. Often
involving many countries the
supply comes from south
America (Colombia) and its
demand from western
countries.
Globalisation and
crime
Changing crime
Hobbs and Dunningham say
‘Glocal’ meaning it involves
networks of people across
the globe. Gleeny (2008)
argues even the mafia has
its businesses to different
Risk consciousness
Increased terrorism has
increased our awareness
of the international risks
we face and increased
security at our national
borders, airports, ports
and train stations.
Increased crime
Ian Taylor (1973)
Marxist argues that
globalisation has allowed
capitalism to create
more crime by exploiting
workers abroad and
creating fraud on a
larger scale.
manufacturing products
abroad has led to a lack
of jobs and opportunities
for the working class,
which leads them to
crime.
 The media and crime News as socially constructed Fictional crime

 The media over-represent ‘The news is not discovered but Our ideas of crime
violence and sex crimes – manufactured’ says Cohen and don’t just come from
this make us think its Young. What they mean is what the news. Fictional
happening more and that gets coverage depends on what representation of
most killers are strange has happened, who is involved, crime comes from
psychopaths – in most when and where. Crime by its books, films and TV
cases the perpetrator is very definition is abnormal and shows. They tend to
know to the victim. ticks most of these news worthy match the incorrect
boxes. stereotypes of the
The media portray media.
criminals and victims as
older and more middle- Mass media and
class. crime
How could the media
Media coverage cause crime?
Can the media cause crime
exaggerates police success
or fear?  Imitation – copycats.
in clearing up cases.
Most studies show media  Desensitisation.
The media exaggerates
violence has at most a small
the risk of victimisation,  Learning criminal
and limited negative effect
especially women. techniques.
on audiences. Studies do
The media overplay show those that watch TV  Desire for
extraordinary crimes but for longer periods of time unaffordable goods.
underplay ordinary crimes. are more likely to be fearful
of becoming a victim.  Glamorising offending.
 New media – new crime
Cinema, television, computer games and the
internet have all been blamed for
corrupting the young. The internet has
grown so quickly its brought about cyber
crime. Defined as computer-meditated
criminal activities conducted through global
electronic networks.
Stanley Cohen Mass media and
crime
Cohen studied how the
media has often demonised
youth culture. This
happened to mods and
Rockers in 1964 who were
seen as modern day folk
devils who threatened
social order. His research
found that actual acts of
deviant acts were minimal.
Cyber-crime
 Cyber-trespass – includes hacking and
spreading viruses.
 Cyber –deception and theft – identify
theft, illegal downloading.
 Cyber-pornography – illegal porn
involving children.
 Cyber-violence – bullying by text,
threatening e-mails, cyber stalking.
Deviancy amplification spiral
This idea says that sensationalist
reporting by the newspapers distorts the
act of crime or deviance and increases
public awareness. Public pressure is put
on the police and courts to act. This
creates a moral panic where certain acts
or groups are seen as a threat to social
order.
 Key ideas
Defined as crimes against
the environment such as
toxic waste dumping and
deforestation. Green crime
is linked with globalisation
as the world is one single
eco-system. Ulrich Beck
reminds us that many
environmental issues are
manufactured rather than
natural.
Secondary crimes
Crimes that result from
flouting rules aimed at
preventing an environmental
disaster.
 State violence against
oppositional groups – despite
opposing terrorism states have
used the method themselves.
Hazardous waste and
organised crime –illegal
dumping.
Traditional criminology
If pollution that causes
global warming is legal
and no real crime has
been committed then
traditional criminology is
not interested.
Environmental/
Green crime
Primary crimes
Crimes that result directly
from the destruction of
the earth:-
 Crimes of air pollution.
 Crimes of deforestation.
 Crimes of species decline
and animal rights.
 Crimes of water
pollution.
Green criminology
Less bound by laws but by
harm caused to the
environment or people.
Green criminology is a
much wider field and so
called Transgressive
Criminology – goes beyond
traditional criminology.
Harm
Anthropocentric is a human
centred approach which
assumes humans have the
right to dominate nature
for their own ends. The
Ecocentric view sees
humans and their
environment as
interdependent, so harming
one is harming another.
Green criminology takes the
ecocentric approach.
 Human rights Problem Solution
The right to life, liberty States create laws which Herman and Schwendinger
and free speech. make their actions legal (1970) argue we should
Civil rights and free them from define crime as a violation
criminal charges. of human rights rather
The right to vote, to than law breaking. States
privacy, fair trial and that deny humans their
education. Human rights rights are then seen as
criminals. This new
The social conditions Stanley Cohen – The spiral approach has been called
of state crimes of state denial (1996) Transgressive criminology
as it transgresses (goes
Three ways dictators deny beyond) the traditional
Three features which
human rights violations:- boundaries of criminology
produces state
crimes:- (criminal law).
Stage 1: ‘It didn’t happen’,
this works until the media
Authorisation – New problem
uncover evidence that it did.
obedience.
Not everybody agrees on
Stage 2: ‘If it did happen, human rights. Is freedom
Routinisation –
it is something else’. from poverty a human
pressure to continue.
right? Could states be
Stage 3: ‘Even if it is what charged as criminals for
Dehumanisation –
you say it is, its justified’ not making its members
Enemy is a monster.
we had to do it. wealthy?
 Definition Case studies Eugene McLaughlin (2001)

Crimes or deviant activities Pol Pot – Leader of the Four types of state crime:-
perpetrated by or with Communist party in  Political crimes -
permission of state agencies. Cambodia. Slave corruption or censorship
labour, malnutrition, (controlling what the media
Examples:- poor medical care says).
resulted in the death
Genocide (deliberate and of 21% of the  Crimes by security and
systematic destruction of population (1.7 -2.5M). police forces – Genocide
an ethnic, national or and torture.
religious group).
War crimes  Economic crime - violations
Torture State crimes of health and safety.
Imprisonment without trial
Assassination  Social and cultural crimes
- institutional racism.
The problem of national sovereignty
States are the supreme authority Abu Ghraib
within their borders. Nazi Germany
The problem is the state is the A prison in Baghdad Hitler started the
source of law meaning it decides what Controlled by US led T4 – euthanasia
crimes are, manages the criminal coalition forces. program from 1939
justice system and prosecutes Accusations of abuse in – 1941.
offenders, meaning it can evade its 2004 – 11 soldiers 275,000 terminally
own law. charge and convicted ill and mental
for mistreatment. patients were killed.
4. Crime control, prevention, punishment,
victims and the criminal justice system

Key questions Key information

1. How can we prevent  Crime prevention policies –

crime from happening? ‘broken window’
 Punishment of crimes & the
2. Does our way of prison system
punishing really work?  Victimology – the study of
victims
 The role of the Criminal
3. What can we learn from Justice system
victims of crimes?

4. What is the role of the

criminal justice system?
 Situational crime prevention
Ron Clarke ( 1992) argues for a
pre-emptive approach which
targets specific crimes (petty)
by altering the immediate
environment of crime. As a
right realist he believes target
hardening and more CCTV will
increase the risk of being
caught and lower the rewards.
Crime control and
prevention
The results
This approach has found great
success in NY. A ‘Clean Car
Program’ was instituted on the
subway in which trains with
graffiti on them were taken away
immediately. As a result graffiti
was largely removed from the
subway.
Marcus Felson (1998) Problem – Displacement
This approach was used This approach doesn’t
with the Port Authority solve the causes of
Bus terminal in NYC. crime in the area.
They reshaped the Often criminals find
environment to design different areas, change
out crime with large the type of crime they
open spaces, it was commit or choose a
successful. different victim.
Environmental crime prevention
Wilson and Kellings argued for an approach
called ‘broken window’. The term broken windows
stands for various signs of disorder and lack of
concern for others found in neighbourhoods.
They argue that leaving broken windows
unrepaired such as graffiti, begging etc sends
out a signal that no one cares and can tip the
area into social disorder. A way to prevent this
is more police on the streets enforcing zero
tolerance towards any social disorder and
repairing things that are broken or
deteriorating .
 Social and community Perry pre-school project
crime prevention These students were
Research conducted in 1962 by
David Weikart in Michigan. The given extra sessions
A left realist approach to on decision making
project provided high-quality
crime prevention it gets to and problem solving.
pre-school education to three-
the causes of crime by Parents implemented
and four-year-old African-
improving unemployment and the programme at
American children living in
housing. home.
poverty and assessed to be at
high risk of school failure.
The results
Crime control and
By age 40 they had
prevention significantly fewer
lifetime arrests for
violent crime, property
Evaluation of all policies crime and drugs, while
 Displacement transfers the problem elsewhere. more had graduated
from high school and
 None of the following can help reduce white were in employment.
collar or state crimes. For every dollar spent
 Do criminals make the rational choice to commit on the programme, $17
crime? were saved on welfare,
prison and other costs.
 Only social and community gets to the causes of
crime.
 Reduction
The aim is to reduce
crime by deterring
others, rehabilitating
offenders and
incapacitation meaning
taking away their ability
to re-offend. This
approach is instrumental
as punishment is a means
to an end, i.e. crime
reduction.
Do Prisons work?
 Two –thirds of prisoners
commit further crimes on
their release from prison.
 In 1993, the UK prison
population was 44,000.
Today it is over 83,000.
 David Garland (2001)
argues the USA and the UK
to a lesser extent are
moving into the era of mass
incarceration.
What is the purpose
of punishment?
Retribution
Meaning pay back, based on the
idea that offenders deserve to
be punished and society is
entitled to take its revenge.
This approach is expressive as
it expresses societies outrage.
Punishment
Do prisons work?
Transcarceration means
when somebody enters
prison or youth offending
they are more than likely to
re-enter it again at some
point be it with social
services or mental health
institutions.
Restorative
This approach
tries to restore
things as they
were by making
offenders meet
their victims to
see the personal
affect their crime
has had on their
lives.
Prison – key facts
 8.75 million people in
prisons across the
world.
 The U.S has the
highest prison
population compared
with population
 The U.K has the
highest prison
population in Europe.
 Durkheim Marxism
The function of punishment is to uphold social Society is divided into two
solidarity and reinforce shared values. It also allows classes, ruling class exploit the
people to express their outrage at rituals like trials working class.
and re-set boundaries. Traditional close knit societies Marxists ask how does
had a strong sense of right and wrong so had punishment serve the ruling
Retributive justice as punishment was severe, cruel class? They argue that
and public. Modern societies have Restitutive justice harsh punishments are part of
which like restorative justice tries to restore broken the Repressive State
relations and offer compensation. Apparatuses (RSA) which keep
the working class in their place.
Panopticon Sociological Prison is similar to the slave
labour of capitalism, especially
perspectives on
A prison designed by Jeremy similar to strict discipline of
Punishment factories in 20th century.
Bentham, its design means
inmates don’t know if they
are being watched. The idea
of surveillance turns into Michel Foucault – Postmodernism
self-surveillance, it becomes
internalised. This move Sovereign power – punishment before the 19th century
towards self surveillance and was a public spectacle with hangings and stockades, its was
self discipline is reflected a way of asserting the monarchs power over its citizens.
not just in prisons but all Disciplinary power – punishment after 19th century was
aspects of social life says not just about governance over the body but the mind or
Foucault. soul, this is done through surveillance – Panopticon.
 Definitions
A person who suffers physical,
mental or psychological harm,
economic loss or impairment of
crimes. Early work focused on
their rights.
Victim is a concept like crime
psychological characteristics
that is socially constructed, who
is and isn’t a victim changes
depending on the context.
Failure to label
They are also interested in the
way the state has the power to
attach or deny a label as a
victim. If the police decide not
to press charges then you are
denied the status of victim and
any compensation.
Problem: While it highlights
the role of the powerful it
denies the role victims
themselves have in their own
victimisation.
Positivist Victimology
It tries to identify why
certain people are victims of
victim proneness meaning
finding social and
that made them more
vulnerable than non-victims.
Victimology: The
study of victims
Critical Victimology
Based on Marxism and
Feminism it wants to highlight
structural factors like
poverty or patriarchy which
put the powerless at greater
risk of being a victim.
Hans Von. Hentig
(1948) identified 13
characteristics such
as female, elderly or
mentally subnormal.
They imply that
victims invite
victimisation by the
way they are.
Problem
This approach has
been called victim
blaming as it
doesn’t count for
the motives of the
perpetrator.
 Class Patterns of victimisation Ethnicity
The poorest groups are Minority ethnic
most likely to be victims Age groups most at risk
of all crimes. Homeless Younger people are most at of all crimes. Ethnic
people are 12 times more risk of crimes like assault, minorities most likely
likely to experience theft, sexual harassment. to feel under-
violence than the general Infants under one are at protected yet over
population. most risk of being controlled.
murdered.
Women who have been
raped but whose cases Gender
have failed in court are Victimology: The Males most at risk of
also victims of the legal study of victims violent attacks
system. especially by
strangers. 70% of
The impact of victimisation homicide victims are
Fear male.
The media has a large Research has found that a
part to play when variety of effects such as Repeat victims
stirring up fear but disrupted sleep, feelings of Once you have been a
statistically speaking helplessness, increased security- victim once you are very
men are more likely to consciousness and difficulties in likely to be again.
be victims of violence socialising. Crime can also create Suggests people were
yet some women fear fear in communities, these are victims for a reason,
going out late at night. referred to as indirect victims. perhaps even targeted.
 Common law
British law not originally
decided upon and written
down but based on a
series of judgements
made by judges based on
a series of facts. The
courts must follow the
decisions of the
precedent (previous case).
Murder isn’t written
in law anywhere but
based on precedents
made years ago.
Oldest statute law in
England and Wales goes
back to 1297 originally part
of the Magna Carta and its
about seeking damages.
Structure of the courts
1. European courts of
Justice
2. House of Lords
3. Royal Courts of
Justice
4. Crown Court
5. Magistrates courts

Courtroom
 Judges seats – often 3
 Clerk & stenograph
(typist).
 Witness stand
 The bar – behind which
the prosecution and
defence solicitors and
barristers sit
 The dock – The
accused
 Public viewing area
The role of the
criminal justice
system
Types of law
 Criminal – murder, rape.
 Tort – negligence, nuisance,
defamation, trespass.
 Contract – sales & purchasing.
 Trusts – Property and
inheritance.
Criminal
These are cases that
have broken the law of
the land and brought
about by the state such
as murder or rape.
Civil
These are cases that
have broken the law but
are brought about by
people such as
compensation against
injury or land disputes.
 1. Reporting 2. Investigation 3. Crown Prosecution
Service
A crime is committed The police will
and reported to the investigate the scene The CPS must decide
police. and question witnesses. whether a case is likely to
The will either charge get a conviction in court.
8. Mental health the suspect, release
them or given them a
Those deemed to be warning. 4. Magistrates court
without their mental Over 95% of cases are dealt
faculty when committing with by the magistrates
a crime are often sent Stages of the court. Because its usually
for assessment and criminal justice less serious crimes there is a
incarceration at system limit to the punishment that
hospitals like Broadmoor can be imposed (6 months in
or Ashworth, many will prison).
never be released. 6. Prison
With shorter sentences
5. Crown court
prisoners remain in the
7. Probation service
local area while longer More serious cases are
Works to monitor sentences, prisoners passed to the crown court
prisoners after their could be sent anywhere. which is served by a judge
release. They help with They must be treated and jury. The jury will
employment and housing with fairness and decide if the accused is guilt
and advise the courts of humility and be given at which point the judge will
a risk of re-offending. productive activities. decide upon the sentence.
 5. The study of suicide

Key questions Key information

1. Is suicide just a  Positivism – Emile Durkheim

psychological issue?
 Interpretivism – Maxwell
Atkinson
2. What social factors may
 Realism – Steve Taylor
cause suicide?

3. How do we define suicide?

4. Should we include people

who have attempted
suicide?
 Emile Durkheim (1897) Findings
3

Objective: To look beyond the
individual act and towards the
social factors which cause
suicide. He took a positivist
methodology, as he wanted to
establish Sociology as a
science. He collected suicide
statistics from across
Europe.
 Suicide rates were higher in Protestant countries
than Catholic ones.
 Suicide rates for any given country remained more or
less constant over time.
 Rates were higher for childless and unmarried people.
 Rates rose during times of economic depression and
prosperity and fell during times of war and political
uncertainty.

Social Facts
The study of suicide Explaining findings
For Durkheim social
facts exist in the Durkheim concluded that
world. Integration Types of suicide suicide must be the result
and regulation are  Altruistic – Too much integration of the extent to which we
social facts i.e. forces (Japan, Seppuka). are integrated and
in the world that regulated into a group.
constrain our  Egoistic – too little integration Integration is the extent
behaviour. If (individualistic). to which a person is bound
Durkheim could  Fatalistic – Too much regulation, by a society by norms and
discover these facts you cant change things (China). values (Japan). Regulation
he would establish is the extent to which a
sociology as a science.  Anomic – Too little regulation, society has control over its
norms and values change rapidly. members (China)
Maxwell Atkinson (1978) Suicide as socially Atkinson examined the
constructed ways in which coroner’s
Took an interactionist
classified deaths. It
(Ethnomethodology) Atkinson believed suicide had
was based on the
approach because he no objective reality. It’s
observations of
believes suicide is an societies that define suicide
inquests, interview with
expression of individual as something specific, the
coroners and
meaning rather than an act definition itself is varied.
examinations of
based on social forces. Atkinson wanted to find out
coroner’s records.
what this definition was and
Atkinson claimed that
how it was constructed.
Criticises Durkheim coroners have a
‘common-sense theory’
Atkinson's work shows The study of suicide of suicide- meaning if
that Durkheim didn’t find the facts fit the theory
anything objective about then a verdict of suicide
suicide just the corners is likely.
Secondary cues
theory (subjective). He
highlights that using  History of mental Primary cues
statistics is floored as we illness.
 Suicide note.
will never have access to
 Disturbed childhood.
those cases that were  Type of death – hanging.
suicide but categorised as  Recent loss or divorce.
 Place and circumstance
death by misadventure
 Financial problems. of death – garage,
because the death didn’t
windows and doors
match the corners theory.  Lack of friends.
closed.
 Problems at work.
 Steve Taylor (1988)
As a realist taylor rejects
Atkinson's view that
suicide is socially
constructed, he argues it’s
a real problem that
requires a real solution.
Problems
Case studies are
unrepresentative. He fails
to find out what causes
uncertainty or detachment.
Durkheim & Atkinson Wider definition
Taylor agrees with A wider definition of
Durkheim that we should suicide is needed in order
look for the underline to explain the broad
structural causes of suicide spectrum of suicidal
but believes case studies behaviour, he therefore
are more appropriate than defines suicide as ‘any
statistics. deliberate act of self-
damage, or potential self-
damage where the
individual cannot be sure
of survival’.
The study of suicide

Categories Taylor said Suicide

 Thanatation suicide – Uncertainty about the world and stems from an imbalance
detached from people. in individuals sense of
their own identity and
 Appeal suicide – uncertainty about the world but attached their relationship with
to people/person (jilted lover). others, this combines
 Submissive suicide – certain about your future but both personal thoughts
detached from people (terminal illness). and feelings and their
position in wider society.
 Sacrifice suicide – Attached to people and certain about
future, but unliveable.
 6. Sociological methods and the study of
crime

Key questions Key information

1. What areas of crime are of  Crime as a research context

interest to Sociologists?
 Official statistics, BCS and
self report studies.
2. What is the best way of  Questionnaires and crime
studying crime?
 Interviews and crime
 Observations and crime
3. What problems do
researchers face?  Experiments and crime
 Secondary sources – statistics
and documents
4. What factors influence the
type of methodology a  P.E.R.V.E.R.T
research will use?
Researching Domestic Violence
Difficult to study due to being
under represented in statistics.
The act itself has few public
witnesses and many victims
choose to not report the
incident to the police. Greater
confidentiality is needed for
that take part in the research
for fear of further abuse.
Researching Criminal justice
The police maybe open to
research but aware of public
scrutiny. Studies of senior
officers is rare. Although
courts are public places,
judges, jurors and lawyers are
often beyond study. Prisons
are closed environments
where researcher safety is
paramount. Prisoners often
co-operate due to boredom
but are no stranger to
deception.
Researching violent crimes
Few observational
opportunities unless a
researcher manages to
infiltrate a gang. Great
danger can be posed to any
researcher who explores this
Researching corporate
and high crime areas. Victims
crime
of violent crimes are unlikely
to want to be interviewed, Likely to be under-
unless by the police. reported in statistics
and by the media. The
crimes themselves have
Crime as a
research context low visibility and are
often difficult to
Researching Young offenders investigate, they may
even go beyond national
Studying these groups maybe borders. Perpetrators
be difficult to observe and are powerful and
interview due to suspicion organised and enjoy
(police officer in disguise and political protection.
the age, class, gender and
ethnicity of the researcher.
Researchers must be aware of
the vulnerability of this group
and their use of language,
literacy and cognitive skills.
 Official statistics
Complied from
government departments
like the police and
courts.
Reported crime
A crime, which the
public has reported
to the police. (90%
of all crime the
police deal with is
reported to them by
the public).
Official crime statistics are
the tip of the iceberg, BCS
and self-report studies
show there is more crime
than what can be seen on
the surface. This is known
as the dark figure of crime
(what is recorded vs.
reported).
Recorded crime Lack of crime reporting
A crime, which has Crimes may not be reported due
been recorded by to:-
the police as a
crime. (Only 40%  fear of reprisal.
of reported crime
is then recorded Lack of awareness (fraud).
due to
discretionary Fear it may not be taken
powers of the seriously.
police).
 Crime is too trivial.
Crime statistics
Inaccurate picture of
crime
 White collar crime dealt
with administratively.
 Only serious crimes
from incidences is
recorded.
Rules for counting always
change.
Lack of recording makes
clear up rates look higher.
 British Crime Survey The study is based on a
representative sample of adults
A victim study which asks Self-report studies
living in private households in
people if they have been a
England and Wales. In 2002 over Anonymous
victim of a crime and the
36,000 surveys were conducted. questionnaires which
circumstances of that
Certain crimes are excluded due ask respondents if they
crime. It was conducted
to low reporting such as murder, have committed a crime
every two years from
drug possession or dealing, fraud, over the past year.
1982 -2000 then every
offences against businesses.
year since.
They are usually based
Trends and patterns on self-completed
BCS and Self- questionnaires or
 BCS says 10.7 million crimes
committed, OS (4.7 million. report studies interviews which
contain a list of
The majority of crime is BCS: includes unreported offences.
property related. and unrecorded crime but Respondents are asked
 Violent crime accounts for only 75% is comparable with to highlight which they
1/5 of all crime police statistics. have committed. Self
report studies show us
 Overall crime peaked in 1995 Self-report: Mainly street that most people
and has declined ever since. crime (working class) commit crime at some
excludes hidden crimes like point in their lives so
 Men aged 16-24 most likely domestic violence. Only
to be a victim of violence. crime is normal.
gives a small picture of
criminal activity.
 Positivist Written questionnaires Closed questions
Respondents are asked to The respondent must choose
Generally used by
complete and return by post their answer from a limited
positivists due to their
or e-mail. range of possible answers like
ability to generate
yes, no or don’t know.
statistical data that is
Interviews
reliable, representative
Either face-to face or by Open questions
and generalisable
telephone. These allow the respondent to
answer freely in their own
Quantitative words.
Social Surveys
Large amounts of Questionnaires
Hypothesis
statistical data
A theory or idea to test
Primary
Sampling techniques
This data has not been Pilot study
1. Random – people selected
collected before
by chance A trial run to test for
2. Systematic – every 5th, problems with questions
10th or 100th person is
Sample chosen. Operationalising concepts
Not all of the 3. Stratified – a sample that
population can be Putting concepts like God
reflects societies diversity or class into categories
studied so researchers
select a sample of it to 4. Quota – researchers have a (pre-set answers) that
study quota (amount) of can be easily analysed
requirements to fill
 Advantages Disadvantages
1. Quick, cheap and easy 1. The data is limited and
to gather. superficial.
2. Reliable – can be 2. Postal questions have a
replicated. low response rate, in
3. Can test a hypothesis. some studies it is as low
as 40%.
4. Detached and objective
way of collecting the 3. Very inflexible as
Social surveys - hypothesis cannot be
data.
Questionnaires changed or adapted.
5. Representative; due to
the large amount of data 4. A lack of validity
that can be gathered, means Questionnaires
especially if a good don’t gives us any real
sampling method is used. insight into people
behaviour.
6. Fewer ethical issues as
questions aren’t in depth 5. Using closed questions
and people can refuse to constrains people’s
answer. answers.

7. No issue of deception
as informed consent
has been gained.
 Practical issues
 Quick and cheap.
 Criminals are unlikely to
volunteer their identity or
location.
 Government departments
want results quickly.
 Questions more likely to
be able less serious crime.
 Self report studies are
questionnaires.
Validity
Validity is likely to be low
due to respondents lack of
memory about criminal
events or their
exaggeration to seem tough.
Questionnaires often
impose on respondents what
is important rather than
discovering something new.
Ethical issues
Post or e-mail
questionnaires pose fewer
ethical concerns because
returning the questionnaire
is giving consent. However
talking to under 16’s about
crime is crucial but parents
consent is needed.
Questionnaires to
investigate crime
Detachment and objectivity
Most large-scale crime
research is developed
through consultation with
criminologists and
governments. Therefore
topics and questions will be
dictated rather than decided
upon.
Reliability and
Representativeness
Difficult to get lists
of criminals to make
questionnaires
representative. Those
more involved in crime
are less likely to
respond to self report
studies. Some
disagreement from
sociologists over the
list of crimes in self
report studies which
makes them difficult
to replicate.
 Positivist Laboratory experiments
Generally used by Conducted in a controlled
positivists due to their environment. (Milgram,
ability to generate Stanford)
statistical data that is
Field experiments
reliable, representative
and generalisable Conducted out in the field where
variables can’t be controlled.
Quantitative (Sissons – Hawthorne)
Large amounts of
Experiments
statistical data
Primary
Philip Zimbardo – Stanford
This data has not been prison experiment (1971)
collected before
A lab experiment designed to
show behaviour of inmates
and the role of authority
Problems
figures. Volunteers were
Highly unethical due to given roles as either prisoner
the amount of emotional or guard. The experiment got
harm caused and out of hand as prisoners
deception. Study not suffered sadistic and
representative or humiliating treatment at the
generalisable hands of the guards
Stanley Milgram
Experiment (1961)
A lab experiment
conducted to test our
obedience to authority.
Volunteers were asked to
administer electric shocks
while being encouraged to
do so by a scientist.
Results showed people
were highly influenced by
an authority figure.
Problems
Highly unethical due to
the amount of emotional
harm caused and
deception. Study not
representative or
generalisable
 Sissons Hawthorne Electrical plant Hawthorne effect
A field experiment A field experiment to test
conducted at Paddington People who know they
the adjustment of light and are being studied
station to see whether heat on workers
people behaviour in change their
productivity. In all cases ordinary behaviour
relation to social class. workers output increased.
It involved a man
dressed as a labourer
and then later a Experiments Lab experiments
businessman. Advantages:
 Can test a hypothesis.
Field experiments
 Can be replicated due to controllable
Advantages: variables.
 Higher validity than lab experiments.  Can study cause and effect
 Less artificial as respondents are in their relationships.
natural setting. Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:  Due to small scale it isn’t
representative or generalisable.
 Variables more difficult to control –
lack of reliability.  Low validity due to artificial
situation.
 Low in validity due to Hawthorne effect.
 Lots of ethical issues.
 Lots of ethical issues.
 Laboratory experiments Ethics Bandura et al (1977)
This method doesn’t lend itself Many crime related Did an experiment on young
to the study of crime and research involves nursery children about
deviance. Although Zimbardo’s danger, victimisation imitative aggression. The
study of the behaviour and the exercise of children watched an adult be
prisoners and guards has power which can if aggressive towards the doll
produced some useful insights recreated can cause then were told they couldn't
into the dehumanising effects harmful effects. play with some toys to see if
of prisons on both inmates and they would act as the adults
staff. did. This caused the children
Experiments to psychological harm. This
We must remember investigate crime study like others showed low
that youth offenders validity as often experiments
and deviance
are more vulnerable are artificial and bear no
than other criminal relation to reality.
groups. Its difficult to
Tougher regime project
replicate field
experiments because of Field experiments were used to Field experiments
the complexity of study the effect of tougher More effect in crime
crime and deviance. If regimes in youth offending research as they can be
prisoners know they institutions such as physical used to study crime
are being studied they exercise, reduced education prevention policies to see
are likely to change and more inspections. The how effect they are on
their behaviour – results showed it had little criminal groups like
Hawthorne effect. effect on re-offending rates. prisoners.
 Interpretivist Structured interview Semi-Structured
Set questions asked to all Set themes to cover but has
Generally used by
respondents. some freedom to explore and
Interpretivists due to
their ability to probe answers.
Unstructured interview
generate valid data
Interviewers have freedom Group interview
about what people think
to ask any questions and The discussion of topics with
and feel and how they
probe answers for small groups of 10-12 people.
act.
explanation.
Qualitative
Interviews Interviewer bias
Small in-depth data
giving us a real insight Interviewer could ask leading
Structured interviews
questions or use body
Primary (Disad)
language to subconsciously
This data has not No depth so low in validity. influence respondents
been collected before answers.
Lacks flexibility.
Unstructured Risk of interviewer bias. Structured interviews (Ad)
interviews (Ad)  Easy to quantify.
Unstructured interviews
 High validity. (Disad)  Reliable less risk of
Can develop a rapport.  Costly, lack reliability, interviewer bias.
Real insights. Representativeness, &  Higher response rate if
Generalisability. face to face.
People feel at ease.
 Comparison is difficult.  Can test a hypothesis.
 Practical issues
 Convicted criminals have
lower literacy levels.
 Recording answers may
Maguire (2007) studied street
make respondents feel
uncomfortable that their
interviews took minutes while
answer may have legal
others took hours, in a pub or
implications.
 Safety of interviewers is
important.
 Getting access to
interviewing criminals or
victims is difficult.
Representativeness
These interviews with
victims and criminals are
time-consuming due to the
sensitive nature of the
discussion which means they
are unlikely to produce
large enough samples to be
representative.
Reliability
The nature of some groups
makes it very difficult to
replicate and interview.
criminals and said some
persons home.
Interviews to
investigate crime
Ethics
Respondents may become at
ease and give up ‘guilty
knowledge’ of crimes they
committed. This leaves the
researcher with the ethical
dilemma of whether to
break the respondents
trust and pass the
information onto the police.
Validity
Unstructured
interviews allow
researcher to decode
language and slang.
Lengthy interviews
allow researchers to
build a rapport and
trust. The appearance
of the interviewer may
make respondents feel
they are an authority
figure. There are
hierarchy and status
issues when
interviewing members
of courts and police. A
clerk of a magistrates
is more likely to give
honest response than a
high court judge.
 Interpretivist Non-Participant obs
Where the researcher observes
Generally used by Participant obs
without interfering.
Interpretivists due to Where the
their ability to researcher
generate valid data Structured becomes a part
Unstructured
about what people think of what they
a set of criteria in Nothing set just
and feel and how they record as much observe.
categories that
act. need to be important
recorded. information as
Qualitative possible.

Small in-depth data

giving us a real insight Observations Covert observation -
the sociologist is open
Primary about what they are doing
by making their identity
This data has not Keywords
and purpose known.
been collected before
Getting in: gaining access
to a group. Covert observation - the
Observers role study is done undercover as
take a position which Going native: no longer
the researchers identity
will not allow you to being a research and being a
and purpose are concealed.
disrupt the groups part of the group.
normal behaviour and Semi-covert observation –
Getting out: leaving the
yet offer a good
vantage to make group without putting Telling one person in a
observations. yourself in danger. group but no others.
 Positivism John Howard Griffin Laud Humphries (1970)
Structured observations Used medication and Broke the law by being a look
could be used by sun lamps to conduct out at a toilet to find out more
positivists as they create covert research among about sex in public places.
data that is easy to black people in 1959.
quantify and can be He knew he wouldn’t James Patrick (1973)
replicated. be accepted as a white
male. Acted as a gang member in
Glasgow but had to leave due to
Advantages the violence he experienced.

Observations
1. High Validity as you see
people in their natural
Disadvantages
setting.
2.A real insight into why 1. Time, money and personal cost through stress and
people do the things they danger.
do. 2. Personal involvement can reduce objectivity.
3. The only chance to walk 3. Very difficult to replicate as its so unpredictable.
in other persons shoes and 4. Not possible to generalise due to small sample sizes.
get their view of the 5. Maybe unethical to members of group if deception is
world. used.
4. More flexible method 6. Researcher may be asked to commit illegal acts.
5. A way to gain access to 7. The observer is likely to affect the groups especially
deviant groups if they are aware of them (participant observation).
 Practical issues
 Covert observation
maybe the only way to
study criminal gangs.
 Gaining access to groups
is going to be difficult.
 Police stations and prisons
may restrict access to
observe.
 Observations can take a
long time without any
incidence of crime or
deviance.
 Ken Pryce was murdered
observing organised
crime.
in studying crime due to
Validity
A rare method that
reveals real insights into
criminal and deviant
behaviour.
Going native Covert observation
Whyte (1955)
Many criminal groups
recognised he turned won’t allow overt
from being a non- participation or at very
participating observe to least will only let them
a non-observing see what they want them
participator when to see. However if access
observing Italian
is granted this will allow
American street gangs. the researcher to ask all
sorts of naive but
Observations to interesting questions.
investigate crime
Overt observation
Ethics
It reduces the risk of
More ethical dilemmas changing people’s behaviour,
than any other method Laud Humphreys found this
in his observation of causal
risk to research, illegal sex in public places. The risk
activity and lack of of one’s cover being blown is
consent. How to leave very dangerous, along with
the gang without concerns that you may be
reprisal is also a asked to engage in illegal
challenge. activity in order to fit in.
 Positivist & Official statistics Advantages
Interpretivist
Gathered by • Its free and available to all.
Can be used by both • Statistics gives us large
government on births,
groups depending on amounts of data
deaths, marriages,
the type of secondary • Census done every 10 years is
crime and
data used good for comparison
unemployment
• Done by the government and
Quantitative & strict sampling so
Qualitative representative.
• Reliable
Depending on the type
of data Secondary data
Secondary
Disadvantages
This data has been
gathered or created • Statistics may not meet the
before needs of the sociologists
Crime statistics
research.
Positivist Because the police don’t • Definitions of terms change
record every crime that over time.
Statistics preferred by
is reported to them the • Soft statistics (not every
Positivists due to large
stats we have are only incidence is recorded) like
amounts of quantitative
the tip of the iceberg from the police and
data, which is reliable,
as we know more crime education unlikely to be low
representative and
is happening. in validity.
Generalisable
 Documents Public documents
Refers to diaries, Produced by organisations
letters, photographs, like schools and includes
newspapers, novels, things like Ofsted reports,
and things from council notes from meetings,
television and radio. published company accounts,
and records of parliamentary
debates.
Personal documents
First person accounts and
experiences, these include
letters, diaries, photo
albums and autobiographies.
Historical documents

Interpretivists A personal or public

Preferred by
Interpretivists because
the data is qualitative and
allows them a real insight
into peoples meanings and
motives
document created in the
Secondary data past. These documents will
allow you the opportunity to
see how people experienced
the social world.
John Scott – assessing documents

Content analysis Scott says we must consider if

A method for systematically studying
content of documents and
producing quantitive data. Sue
Sharpe did this in her study of girls
aspirations.
documents are authentic (not fakes)
and if it is credible (believable). We
must find out if the document
represents the past fairly and that the
meaning of words, ideas and beliefs
hasn’t changed.
 Official statistics
Practically there is always
large amounts of
statistical data
available to researchers
on a variety of issues
from different
agencies.
Validity
Biographies of criminals
maybe be exaggerated but
can still offer real insight.
Many official documents
tilt towards enforcement
agenicies like the police or
courts.
Reliability and
Representativeness
If documents about crimes are
found they are varied and few
and far between making them
unreliable and unrepresentative.
Validity Representativeness
About 90% of crime is At first sight they seem
reported to the police by to be representative as
the public, whether they do they are collected by
so depends on the nature government agencies but
of the crime. Crimes like we know they are only the
domestic violence and sex tip of the iceberg.
crimes are less likely to
be reported which puts Reliability
the validity of statistics in Although the same
question. research can be
replicated what crimes
are included and how
Secondary data to
changes making it
investigate crime
difficult to compare.
Ethics
Documents
These pose few
ethical issues if Practically there is always
they are part pf large amounts of documents
public record. from courts, police etc that
are part of public record,
however there is also a lot
that is restricted. Suicide
notes along with graffiti can
be very useful.
 Practical issues Ethical issues
 Time and money. the British Sociological Society guidelines.

 If you can get research funded
they may require a certain type
of data.
 Skills of the Sociologist to
build trust and rapport or social
skills. Skills of the Sociologist
to build trust and rapport or
social skills.
 Informed consent – participants should be offered
the right to refuse to be researched.
 Participants identity should be kept confidential
 Researchers should be aware of the social or
psychological harm of research.
 Special care should be give to research in vulnerable
groups like young offenders and victims.
 Covert research can take place but must be aware of
problems of deception.

 A research opportunity may

Factors influencing a
come out of the blue leaving no
time for Questionnaires.
researchers choice of topic

Theoretical issues

 Validity – Getting results that are true to life, qualitative methods are seen to do this
the best.
 Reliability – getting results that be replicated, quantitative methods allow for this.
 Representativeness – getting results that reflects all of society, large scale
quantitative questionnaires allow researchers to make generalisations.
 Whether the researcher is a Positivist or Interpretivist
 P.E.R.V.E.R.T
Practical – time and money, difficult to analyse
Ethical – is it right or wrong?
Reliable – Can it be replicated?
Validity – Are the results true to life?
Evidence of studies – What studies have
used this method?
Representativeness – does it reflect society
as a whole?
Theoretical - Positivist or Interpretivist
 Positivists Interpretivism
Main aim: Main aim:
Reliability, Representativeness Validity
and Generalisability

Structuralists: Sees society Interactionism: Sees society

has a set of institutions which as created by our interactions
shape our behaviour. with other people.

Functionalists, Marxist Labelling theory, Charles

and Feminists Cooley, Erving Goffman

A bird’s eye view of society, looking Walking in other peoples shoes,

for cause and effect relationships subjective, small but quality data
and turning behaviour into numbers looking at how people interact

Quantitative methods: Qualitative methods: gathering

gathering lots of data that be small but in-depth data
turned into statistical data

Research methods: Questionnaires, Research methods: Unstructured

structured interviews, experiments interviews, participant observation
and official statistics and personal documents
 Aim of sociology: To find out why people behave as they do.

Structuralism Social Action

Theories Sees behaviour as the result of us See behaviour as the result of
being constrained by institutions. people interacting and creating
their own meanings and motives.

Interactionism
Theories Functionalism - Consensus Labelling theory
Marxism - Conflict Mead – Symbolic
Feminism - Conflict Interactionism
Goffman – Impression
management
Positivist Interpretivist
Methods 1.Scientific 1.Walking in others shoes
2.Birds eye view 2.Subjective
3.Quantitative 3.Interaction
4.Cause and effect 4.Qualitative
Questionnaires, structured Unstructured interviews,
interviews, experiments and Official observations and personal
statistics documents
 7. Sociological theory only
Key questions
1. Does society control us or do
we control society?
2. Do we need new theories to
explain recent changes in
society?
3. Is sociology a science?
4. Should sociology be objective
and value free?
5. Should sociological research
influence social policy?
Key information
 Functionalism
 Marxism and feminism
 Social action approaches -
Interactionism
 Structuration theory –
Giddens
 Globalisation, modernity and
Postmodernity
 Late modernity – Giddens
 Sociology as a science
 Objectivity and values in
Sociology
 Sociology and social policy
 Structuralism Emile Durkheim Talcott Parsons
A theory which argues Concerned with how society Its important that
that the institutions of stayed together after such individuals are
society, education, family, rapid change. He said society is socialised to accept
religion, politics, media kept together by social to norms and values
and law & order all solidarity (shared norms and through institutions
influence and constrain values) and collective like education, religion
our behaviour. consciousness. If these things and the media.
Consensus are not maintained then society
could fall into a state of Anomie On crime
An approach which says – Normlessness.
society is based on Crime has positive
agreement, meaning we functions which help
Functionalism keep society balanced
agree on norms and
values. and in harmony.
Criticisms
Uses a macro approach to On religion
studying society.  Explaining the function of
things doesn’t explain how they Religion helps
came about. reinforce social
Modernist
solidarity through
Agrees with the 18th  Too optimistic ignores rituals. It gives
enlightenment project of inequality. people a sense of
using reason to achieve  Too deterministic, our meaning and gives
knowledge that will help behaviour is constrained and support during times
society progress. there is nothing we can do. of emotional stress
 Structuralism Key ideas Solution
A theory which argues Marx says institutions are used The Proletariat can
that the institutions of to transmit ruling class never be free under
society, education, family, ideology, then in turn causes capitalism they must
religion, politics, media false class consciousness and cast off the shackles
and law & order all the idea that capitalism is of oppression and
influence and constrain reasonable and just. Marx says create a Communist
our behaviour. Capitalism exploits and revolution.
alienates the proletariat in
Conflict order for the Bourgeoisie to On crime
An approach which says create profit.
Laws are their to
society is based on oppress the working
conflict between the Marxism class and control
Bourgeoisie and the them if they revolt.
Proletariat
Criticisms
Uses a macro approach to On religion
studying society.  Out of date, especially in
relation to class. Religion is the opium
of the masses it
Modernist  Economic determinist – too doesn’t encourage
Agrees with the 18th focused on the economy and the working class to
enlightenment project of ignores gender and ethnicity. change their
using reason to achieve  Marx’s predictions of situation because of
knowledge that will help revolution haven’t come true, the promise of
society progress. was he wrong? compensation in the
after life.
 Structuralism Types of feminism Three Waves
A theory which argues  Liberal – Using democracy to 1. Mid 1800’s – right
that the institutions of change the laws. to vote.
society, education, family,
 Marxist (socialist) – Capitalism 2. 1960’s – equal
religion, politics, media
is the cause of women's rights in pay and
and law & order all
oppression work
influence and constrain
our behaviour.  Radical – men and women should 3. 1990’s –
be separated. representing
Conflict
 Black – Sexism, class oppression ethnic minorities
An approach which says and racism are bound together
society is based on On crime
conflict between men and
Feminism Women commit less
their subordination of
women. crime than men
Criticisms because they are
Uses a macro approach to controlled by men.
studying society.  Gender determinist – no place
for issues of class or poverty.
On religion
Modernist  Patriarchy is in decline! Women
Religion helps
Agrees with the 18th are becoming more equal to men.
suppress women by
enlightenment project of  Fragmented movement, portraying women as
using reason to achieve different ideas and solutions subordinate to men in
knowledge that will help leads to a lack of unit or the bible and customs
society progress. progress. and practices.
 Social action George Herbert Mead Herbert Blumer
An approach which Noticed most of our Blumer says our actions
focuses not on structures communication was symbolic are based on the meaning
but the interaction such as smiles, and frowns. It is we give to situations,
between people. These our job to determine the these meanings arise
individuals have free will meaning of these symbols and from the interaction
and choice to determine act accordingly. He calls this process, and they are not
their own actions. A micro Symbolic Interactionism. fixed but negotiable and
approach which focuses Understanding the meaning of changeable to some
on individuals. these symbols to us is the key to extent.
understanding human behaviour.
Criticisms Charles Cooley
 Ignores structural Interactionism The looking glass
factors like poverty. self reminds us that
 Not all action is Erving Goffman our self conception is
meaningful sometimes made up of how
Impression management is the
we act subconsciously. others see us.
idea that we give more or less
 If we care so much continuous performance to each
other like actors on a stage. Like Howard Becker
about what people
think of us and we feel actors we manage costumes, The labelling theory
a pressure to conform dialogue and props to give a good reminds us our
then this seems as performance. Like an actor we interaction with
though our behaviour also recognise when to perform others can determine
is determined and not and when to not with front/back our behaviour.
free at all. stage performances.
 Structure Action
Whilst its easy to
Structuralist theories are those see society as an Social action theories are
that focus on the institutions of external force those that focus on
society because these dictate our which constrains individuals and the way they
norms and values and thus our behaviour, its interact with each other.
determine our behaviour. While difficult to The reason for this is that
people can choose to act otherwise believe we have no they believe our behaviour is
most of the time this ends in free will as we the result of the way we
prison or social exclusion. These seem to express interpret and negotiate with
include Functionalism, Marxism and this everyday. others over norms and
Feminism values.

Criticisms Whilst its easy to see how we

Structuration freely choose our actions, its
 Can people just theory difficult to see how such
choose to change freedom is possible without
the structures of structures like democracy.
society – slaves.
 Craib says this Structure and action
isn’t a theory at all
because it doesn’t Giddens says that structure and action are two sides of the
explain what same coin; neither can exist without the other, he calls this the
happens in society, duality of structure. He says through our actions we produce
just structure and and reproduce structures over time, while these structures are
action. also what make our actions possible in the first place.
 Globalisation The end of truth – Lyotard Death of sociology?
Lyotard argues we have a variety If there is no social
The way in which we seem
of meta-narratives (big stories - truth about the world
to live in an increasingly
Marxism, science) all which claim to be discovered then
‘shrinking world’, where
to know the truth. We should Sociology would
societies are becoming
reject the idea of absolute truth become useless like
more interconnected and
in exchange for truth that is most other disciplines
dependant on each other.
relative to each person such as science and
(relativism). We should listen all Psychology.
Main idea perspectives as equal possibilities.
Globalisation has
Jean Baudrillard
changed the world, such
rapid social change
Postmodernism
He argues that all human
requires a new theory to experience is shaped by
explain its effect on Late modernists like Giddens and the media. Our problem
society and people. beck argue society has changed is at times we are unable
but that doesn’t mean we have to to distinguish reality
assume we can never find truth. from fantasy
Postmodernist
(Hypereality). We
We can no longer agree Criticisms struggle to tell the
with the enlightenment difference between the
project, as this hasn’t  Isn’t Postmodernism also a
real and unreal and live a
led to progress but meta-narrative?
copy of the real world
more manufactured  We can tell the difference rather than the real
risks and uncertainty. between reality and fantasy. world itself.
 Positivism Sociology is a science!
This methodological It’s the job of science to It’s the jobs of sociologists
approach takes bird's- study the natural world to discover the laws that
eye view of society and and discover objective order our behaviour.
seeks to create facts that will tell us Durkheim took this approach
quantitative data which about its behaviour. in his study of suicide
can help to find cause Society should be studied statistics. Sociologists
and effect in the same way to reveal should use objective methods
relationships. social facts. like experiments,
questionnaires and statistics
as these are mathematically
Understanding society is
Sociology as a science precise and not based on
about understanding
thoughts and feelings
people’s meanings and
motives, to do this you
must use methods that
Sociology isn’t a science! Interpretivism
allow you to see the
world from their point of Interpretivists argues that This methodological
view – unstructured people are more complex than approach focuses on
interviews, participant things in the natural world like individuals and their
observations and plants. People’s behaviour is interaction with others.
personal documents. less predictable because they It seeks to generate in-
Becker and Goffman have the choice to act depth qualitative data
have used these methods differently and frequently do that can reveal people’s
in their research. so. meaning and motives.
 Thomas Kuhn
Karl popper
1. Science is a paradigm
1. No theory can ever be Popper says sociology meaning a shared set of
said to be 100% true. isn’t a science because assumptions, principles and
theories like Marxism methods.
2. Science works by and false class
Falsification meaning a consciousness are 2. Science studies the world
theory can only be unfalsifiable. Sociology until it finds conclusions
scientific if it can be could be a science if it that it cannot explain
proved to be false or produced hypothesis (anomalies).
true. that can be tested.
3. These anomalies cause us to
3. If it can’t be proven or consider other paradigms
disproven it isn’t Sociology as a science
in order to find answers
scientific! (flat earth vs. round).
Kuhn says sociology isn’t a
4. A good theory isn’t
science because there is 4. Two paradigms cannot exist
necessarily true but one together, at some point one
no shared assumptions and
that has withstood wins favour amongst the
principles. Functionalism,
attempts to falsify it so scientific community, this
Marxism and Feminism all
far. causes a scientific
have differing ideas. If
these could be resolved to revolution, a shift from one
5. Science is an open belief to the other.
create one paradigm then
system, it can and should
sociology could be a
be constantly criticised 5. This process starts all over
science, but this is
and this will allow us to again as this new paradigm
unlikely.
get closer to the truth. highlights new anomalies.
 Key Question Comte, Durkheim and Marx Max Weber

Can sociologists All agree that Sociology can be Its impossible for
research be value- studied like the natural sciences, sociology to be value
free meaning free objectively without subjective free, as these values guide
from contamination or values. This can help society the type of research to be
distortion by their improve and progress studied and the way to go
values? (enlightenment project). Comte about studying it.
and Durkheim were Positivist, Sociologists have a moral
while Marx was in a scientist. responsibility for their
work and the harm it may
Howard Becker
cause. Despite this
Objectivity and
Says we should ask although values are
whose side are you values in Sociology important we should try to
on? Sociologists be objective and unbiased
always take the side in the data collection.
of the powerful Committed sociology
(police, courts) what They argue its not only Other issues
about the powerless possible but desirable to Sociologists research is
such as labelled or use values in their research. constrained by other factors
mentally ill? Taking Sociologists should not only like the values of their
the side of the make their values clear but paymasters. Whether a
underdog will reveal actually take the side of a sociologist is positivist or
another side to particular group. Gunnar Interpretivist will also affect
reality. Myrdal and Alvin Gouldner the methods they use and the
advocate this approach. type of data they generate.
 Definition Factors which influence social policy

Social policy is  If the research led to a policy that would be unpopular

government policy to with voters.
deal with social  The political values of the government at the time.
problems like poverty, Previous parties have tried to stop research being
crime and benefits. published because it was commissioned by the previous
government.
Key Question  What organisations like the EU think is important as no
Should it be the job of decision is made in isolation.
Sociologists to produce
research in order to Sociology and social  Sociologists like Marx
influence social policy? policy aren't taken seriously
as they are critical of
the system itself.
In reality sociological
research is only one To be or not to be?  Costs are important,
factor when deciding even if the
Opinions from sociologists are
on social policy. government likes the
divided, some believe their
Ultimately any policy policy if funding
research should feed into policy.
is the result of priorities lie
Others suggest its there job to
political decisions by elsewhere it will never
find out what is happening and
those in power. be implemented.
why and that its somebody
else's task to figure how to
solve the problem.
 Functionalism - Yes Marxism – No

Its the job of the sociologist is to
provide the state with scientific and
objective information on which the
state can base its policies.
The state will implement policies that
help promote a fairer society for all.
Social policies only serve the ruling
class. Even policies introduced to help
the working class like NHS are used to
dampen discontent and keep them fit to
work. Recommendations for social
policies are pointless as only a
revolution can solve social problems.

The New Right Sociology and social

The state should have a
minimal role when
intervening in peoples
lives, so criticises most
social policies. Some
policies like the NHS,
welfare benefits reduces
personal responsibility
(Charles Murray).
The NR promotes polices
which increase personal
responsibility so often
favoured by the
Conservative party.
policy
Perspectives on sociology and
social policy
Feminism – yes and no
The state perpetuates its subordination of women
through social policies – promoting policies like
marriage keeps women dependant on men. Feminists
have helped promote anti-discrimination policies and
more positive images of women since 1970;s. Radical
feminists support policies which separate women
from men, such as women's refuges for victims of
domestic violence.