Lecture 4.

WORD-F0RMATION RULES
(ways of enriching the vocabulary
on the basis of internal means)
 AFFIXATION
• Affixation represents the use of prefixes and suffixes with the roots/stems of various words to
form new words

1.1. PREFIXES
1.1.1. Class changing prefixes
a- //. forms adjectives, used in predicative position: the house is ablaze vs. *the ablaze house
be- . forms transitive verbs from adjectives, verbs or, most frequently, nouns., e.g.., bewitch, bejewel,
en-.: endanger, encircle, enlarge,

Other prefixes in this class are: de- ‘to remove the thing denoted by the noun’ (debark, de-ice, debug,
defrost), dis- (disbar), un- (unhorse).

1.1.2. Class maintaining prefixes (classified acc. to semantic principles)

a) Negative prefixes (the opposite of): un a prefix of Germanic origin; e.g. unfair, unexpected, non-
e.g. non-smoker, non-profit, non-resident, in- (with the allomorphic variants il-, ir-, im)e.g.
inactivate, insane, illogical, improper, irrecoverable, dis- e.g. disobey, disloyal, dislike, a-, /ei/
amoral, apolitical
b) Reversative prefixes (to reverse the action:)de.e.g. decode, deactivate, dis- e.g. disconnect,
disorder, disinherit, un e.g. undo, unwrap,
c) Pejorative prefixes: mis – (meaning bad, improper, wrongly):, misconduct, misdirect, misprint,
mistreat. mal- (meaning badly, inadequate): malformed, maladjustment, maltreat, maladjusted,
pseudo- (meaning false): pseudonym, pseudomycelial.
d) Prefixes of degree /size: arch: archbishop, archduchess, hyper-
hyperventilate, hyperactive, hypo– hypotension, hypochondria; macro-.
macrobiotic, macrocosm; micro-. microcosm, microscopic, microsurgery;
out- outgrow, outrun, outlive; over-. overdo, overeat, super-. supernatural,
superabundant, sur-. surcharge, surreal, surplus; sub meaning ‘inferior to':
subadult, subagency, under-.. undercooked, underestimate, ultra- (‘beyond,
excessive’): ultramodern, ultrahigh,

e) Prefixes of attitude: anti- anti-abortion, anti-Catholic; co- (variants:

com-, con-, col-, cor- ) co-author, communicate, conference, contra-(
contro-) contravene, controversy, pro pro-allies, pro-democracy, pro-
feminist, pro-union

f) Locative prefixes: cata (‘down’): catastrophe, cataract, catapult; circum-

circumnavigate, circumcise, dia- (‘across, through’): diagonal, diameter,
inter- international, inter-city, inter-departmental; super- ‘over, above’:
superstructure, superscript; sub- ‘under’ subway, subcontract; trans
transatlantic, transcontinental
g) Prefixes of time and order: ante ‘before’ antecedent, , ante-nuptial, ex-,
‘former’ ex-accountant, ex-boxer; fore- ‘before’ forearm, forebear; pre ‘before’
preamplifier, pre-arrange; post-‘after’ postpone, post-budget, post-
impressionism, prim- ‘first’ primordial, primrose, proto-. prototype, proto-horse,
protohuman, re- ‘again’ rebuild, resettlement, rename.

h) Number prefixes : ambi-; ‘both’ ambidextrous, bi-/ di- means ‘two’, bicycle,
dichotomy, dilemma. mono-, uni- ‘one’ monarchy, monotheism
1.2. SUFFIXES (classified acc. to the class of the word they form)

1.2.1. Noun-forming suffixes

• Nouns from nouns

a) Occupational
-eer: pamphleteer, engineer, pioneer. -er: ‘maker of’; glover, potter;
-ist: violinist,
b) Diminutive and female
-ette: ‘small’; kitchenette, cigarette; ‘feminine’: usherette, majorette,
-ess: waitress, actress. -let: ‘small, unimportant’
booklet, starlet, piglet, -y (ie): daddy, auntie, Johnny.
c) Status, domain
-cracy: ‘system of government’ democracy, plutocracy; -dom:
kingdom, stardom -ery: e.g. slavery, machinery; -hood: boyhood,
brotherhood, -ship: friendship, membership;
•Nouns (adjectives) from nouns
ese: ‘nationality’ Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese. -(i)an: ‘belonging to,
nationality’; Indonesian, republican; -ism: ‘doctrine’ Calvinism, Buddhism,
idealism; -ist: ‘member of, occupation’ Buddhist, stylist, manicurist -ite:
‘member of’ Labourite, Wagnerite;

•Nouns from verbs

-ation: lexicalization, computerization, flirtation, formation, containerization,
Finlandization, fracturation.
-al: denotes action (derived from dynamic verbs): arrival, refusal, denial; -
ant: inhabitant, lubricant, contestant, -ee: addressee, assignee, deportee,
cohabitee, divorcee; -er: actor, lecturer, player, producer,
-ing: driving, painting, earnings. -ment: arrangement, commitment,
entertainment, improvement, retirement. -ure: closure, failure, departure,

•Nouns from adjectives

-cy:. accuracy, efficiency, Excellency, illiteracy, intimacy; -ity; absurdity,
brutality, complexity, formality,
-ness: awkwardness, boldness, effectiveness; -th : warmth, length, youth,
width.
1.2.2. Verb-forming suffixes
-ize: apologize, characterize, symbolize, publicize, pedestrianize, structurize,
Vietnamize.
-ify: amplify, beautify, clarify, , metrify, fishify (=to supply with fish), testify, specify.
-en: blacken, dampen, deepen, flatten, harden, loosen;
1.2.3. Adjective-forming suffixes
•Adjectives from nouns
-al. accidental, additional, conventional,
-ed bearded, patterned, pointed,
-esque: Dantesque, Haydnesque, Rembrandtesque, picturesque, grotesque,
-less, brainless, endless,
-ish British, English, Jewish, boyish, childish,
-like animal-like, childlike, daisy-like; -ly beastly, fatherly, heavenly, manly, -
ous: ambitious, courteous, -y: e.g., creamy, silky.

Other suffixes which form adjectives from nouns are:

-ate: e.g. passionate, affectionate, compassionate -en: e.g. woolen, golden: -
ese: e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese.-ful: e.g. useful, delightful,
successful; -ic: e.g. algebraic, atomic, heroic, specific.

• Adjectives from verbs

-able: e.g. acceptable, comparable, manageable, -less: countless,
tireless; -ive active, attractive, competitive, destructive, effective;- ant/-ent:
absorbent, brilliant, constant, -atory: affirmatory, derogatory

•Adjectives from adjectives

-ish biggish, blackish, dampish, darkish; -ly: e.g. lowly, sickly. -some: e.g.
queersome, wearisome
COMPOSITION (COMPOUNDING)
1. COMPOUND NOUNS
- bée sting (cf: the bee stings), snake-bite, rainfall, plain crash,
sunshine, toothache
- cleaning lady, dancing girl, falling star, laughing stock,
- callboy, hangman, glow-worm, playboy
- demolition squad
- chewing-gum (cf: Mary chews the gum), drinking-water,
- flashlight, ripcord, stopwatch
- brick-layer, cheese-cutter
- fuel oil, gear wheel, houseboat, killer shark, ejector seat
- bull's eye, death’s head, crow’s nest, lion’s shoe, no-man’s land, cat’s
cradle, devil’s advocate
- blotting paper, carving knife, darning needle,
- landing strip, swimming pool, bake-house, call-box, checkpoint, show-
room, watch-tower.
2. COMPOUND VERBS

2.1. Compound verbs obtained by back-formation: to

globe-trot,: to brainwash, to sleep-walk, to air-condition, to
book-keep, to gift-wrap,

2. 2. Compound verbs formed by zero-derivation to

court-martial, to hand-cuff, to machine-gun,
3. CONVERSION (zero derivation)

3.1. Verbal zero-derivation

• Derived from SIMPLE NOUNS
-asphalt - to asphalt, butter - to butter, paper - to paper; fence - to
fence, hedge - to hedge, cream - to cream, curry - to curry, comb - to
comb, hammer - to hammer, bottle - to bottle, elbow - to elbow, finger -
to finger;

•Very often derived from COMPOUND NOUNS:

-N + N: sandpaper - to sandpaper, handcuff - to handcuff;
-Adj + N: wet-nurse - to wet-nurse (to act as a wet-nurse, i.e.
as a woman employed to suckle another’s child),

• Derived from ADJECTIVES: dirty - to dirty, calm - to calm;

3.1.2. Nominal zero-derivation
• Derived from VERBS: to call - a call, to command - a
command, to guess - a guess;

•Derived from ADJECTIVES (relatively rare and frequently

restricted in their syntactic occurrence): comic - a comic,
bitter - bitter, final - the finals, regular - regulars;

3.1.3. Adjectival zero-derivation

• Derived from ADVERBS (adverbs may appear as
attributive modifiers): down – a down line, a down train, off
– an off day, the off side of the wall.
5.4. CLIPPING/CONTRACTION

Clipping is the process by which a word of two or more syllables (usually a noun)
is shortened without a change in its function and meaning taking place (e.g.
advertisement > advert, ad, examination > exam). The unpredictability
concerns the way in which the base lexeme is shortened.

a) Aphaeresis (fore-clipping) represents the reduction of the fore part of a

word. This can be seen in such examples as (tele) phone, (air) plane, (omni)
bus, (violon) cello, (heli) copter;

b) Syncope (mid-clipping) consists in the reduction of the middle part of a

word: e.g. fancy< fan(ta)sy, celebs < celeb(ritie)s, veg(etari)an;

c) Apocope (back-clipping) is the most productive of the three types and

consists in the omission of the last part of a word. Here are some examples:
memo(randum), cable(gram) cab(riolet) chap(man), miss(tress), fax (from
facsimile)
5.5. BLENDING

Blends are also called ‘telescoped words’, ‘disguised compounds’ or

‘portmanteau words’.
-formed from parts of two (or possibly more) other words; blends take
the first part of one word and the last part of another
-restriction: the splitting up of consonant clusters from either of the
original words is not allowed.
- examples of blends: flurry =fly + hurry, grumble = growl + rumble,
splutter = splash + sputter, twirl = twist + whirl, flubber = flying + rubber,
cablegram = cable + telegram, sportscast = sports + broadcast, to
snoopervise = snoop + supervise, Amerind = American + Indian, Velcro
(fastener consisting of two strips of fabric which cling when pressed
together) = velours croché (in French).
6. ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

- if a word like Value Added Tax is pronounced as /vi ei ti/, that is an

abbreviation (alphabetism), but if we pronounce it as /vt/, it has
become an acronym.
- Examples of alphabetisms: hi-fi, FBI, UFO, NATO and BA. There
are large numbers of new technical terms such as VHS (the video
home system), PC, EMT.

-Examples of acronyms: AIDS (Anti-Immunitary Deficient System),

LEM (Lunar Excursion Module), FOBS (Fractional Orbital
Bombardment System) and all the terms for computerspeak: (personal
computer), RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only
Memory), BASIC (Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
7. REDUPLICATION

-the word-formation rule which brings together two or more

elements which are identical or only slightly different. The
outcome of this WFR are the reduplicated words.

a) reduplicated words based on internal vowel

alternations: chit-chat, drip-drop, knick-knack, tip-top, zig-
zag, tick-tock, ticky-tacky.

b) reduplicated words based on rhyme: boogie-woogie,

willy-nilly, hocus-pocus, hanky-panky, bow-wow, hob-nob,
nitty-gritty, hoity-toity, ricky-ticky, razzle-dazzle.
8. EPONYMOUS WORDS
These are common words derived from proper names, i.e. from names
of people and from names of places.

8.1. Words from people.

-macadam, after John McAdam, a Scottish engineer who was the first to
pave streets with small blocks of stone;
-mackintosh, after Charles Mackintosh who owned a factory producing
raincoats;
-guy, after Guy Fawks (1570 –1606) who led the conspiracy known as
the ‘Gun Powder Plot’, meant to kill the king;
-bobby (a policemen in England), after Sir Robert Peel, who reorganized
the police;
-boycott, after Captain Charles S. Boycott, agent in 1880 for the estates
of Lord Erne in County Mayo.
-lynch, after Captain William Lynch of Virginia, in the 18th century;
-shrapnel (fragmented shell), after General Henry Shrapnel (1761-
1842);
-sandwich, after Earl of Sandwich.
8.2. Words from places

-champagne, an effervescent wine, takes its name from a

famous region in France where this drink is produced;
-holland, linen or cotton cloth, first made in Holland;
-damask, cloth produced in Damascus;
-calico comes from Calicut on the Malabar coast of India;
-muslin comes from Mosul in Mesopotamia;
-the duffel coat, which the Navy made so popular, gets its
name from a coarse woolen cloth spun at Duffel near
Antwerp;
-bikini, a style of beachwear, takes its name from an atoll
in the Marshall Islands in the Pacific.