Physical transport phenomena 2

Lecture 10

Jun Yue
E-mail: Yue.Jun@rug.nl
December 2019
 Lecture topics in Beek’s book
Lecture 10
 Film condensation (Slides 4-6)
 Boiling (Slides 7-10)
 Evaporators (Slide 11)
 Radiation (Slides 12-26)
Beek’s book (2nd version)
 Chapter III (III. 7.1)
 Chapter III (III. 7.3)
 Chapter III (III. 7.4)
 Chapter III (III. 9)
2
Heat transfer with phase change

• condensation ☺

• boiling ☺
l p y
a
• freezing en th
ng e
t: ha
s o r
p h as ec
• melting n
r a he p
l t
a of t
t i c
Cri oval
rem
3
 Film condensation
The condensate film covers the surface entirely and flows down laminarly,
The difference between the condensation temperature Tc and wall temperature Tw
is constant over the entire height,
Mass balance:
x=0 Condensate:
v x  dx
 v x  d v

v Heat balance:
Vapour

x

H v  d  v  TWdx
dx dv 
Film thickness:
L
v x  dx  gW  3
v 
3
Tc
x=L W : width of the surface element, m
Tw δL  : film thickness, m
H v : heat of evaporation, J/kg 4
 Film condensation (2)
 
x=0 Condensate: H v  d  v  T Wdx 
 

 gW  2 
v d v  d
x Vapour  
dx dv H v  2 g 3
 T dx  d
L 
v x  dx
Integration
L
H v  2 g 3
L

Tc
 T dx  
0 0

d
x=L
Tw δL H v  2 g L4
 TL 
4 5
 Film condensation (3)
Average heat transfer coefficient

H v  g 2 4

TL  L
 4 
4  h 
 3 L
h  WL  T  H v   v x  L 

Elimination of δL
1
 H v  2  3 g  4
h  0.94  
 L  T 

6
 Boiling (1)
8 possibilities:
Wall: Liquid: Medium:
horizontal at boiling temp. flowing
vertical undercooled stagnant

Regimes (for water): T= T − Tsat

. . ..

Nucleate Leidenfrost Film boiling

Low
boiling regime (radiation heat
superheating
2<T<25-75 0C 50<T<500 0C transfer)
T<2 0C
Free convection T>500 0C
Vapor bubbles formed. Coalescence of nucleus.
no bubble formation Stable vapor
Closed vapor layer formed. 7
layer formed.
 Boiling (2)
Low Nucleate Leidenfrost
Film boiling
superheating boiling regime

. . ..

1000

100
H
10

0.1
0.1 10 103
T 8
 Instability in boiling
1000 1000
H H
100 100

10 10

1 1
T T
0.1 0.1
0.1 10 103 0.1 10 103

Temperature Heat flux

controlled controlled

Preheated steam Electrical heating

Stable operational mode
Unstable operational mode 9
 Heat flux controlled boiling
1000 1000
H H
100 100

10 10

1 1
T T
0.1 0.1
0.1 10 103 0.1 10 103

H w a y
a
u n rs
r
with acto
hysteresis: le m r re
b a
pro nucle

T
10
 Evaporators
(boiling in pipes)

Liquid Bubbles Froth Slugs

Vapour 0 ~0.5% ~3% ~5%
quality

Mist Vapour
Vapour Ring flow Ring flow with mist
>40% 100%
quality ~12% ~30% 11
 Which important means of heat transfer?

Pollard Willows and Setting Sun. Forge of the Vulcan.

Vincent Van Gogh Diego Velázquez
(Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Netherlands) (Museo del Prado, Spain)

12
Radiation heat transfer
 Radiation
 "z ,
8000 K
Two important laws:
Stephan-Boltzmann law:
radiation constant
Black
6000 K Iron
body  "z   T 4
emission coefficient
Technical  "z  e T 4
surface
Charcoal
 = 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2.K4)
1000 K Wien’s displacement law
Black
body
maxT  2880 (μm.K)
0.1 1 10
 "z : heat flow emitted per unit of surface by a black body, W/m 2
Wavelength
 (m)  "z , : heat flow emitted per unit of surface per wavelength by a
black body, W/  m 2 .μm 
14
Thermal radiation: between wavelengths of 0.1 and 100 μm.
 Radiation of a body
Balances:
incoming a  r t 1 Most solid bodies
radiation do not transmit
thermal radiation.
 i If transmission = 0:
total emission

absorption   ez   1  a  i

ai net emission
reflection
r i net  ez  ai
own emission Under stationary temperature
transmission
t i e z ai  ez
a : absorption coefficient For a black body i  z ( a  e  1)
r : reflection coefficient
t : transmission coefficient
For a technical body ae (at the same temperature)

(for most solids, t=0) Kirchhoff’s law 15

 View factor Fij
F12= fraction of heat leaving surface 1 which reaches surface 2
F21= fraction of heat leaving surface 2 which reaches surface 1
Fij= fraction of heat leaving surface i which reaches surface j
Reciprocity relation A1 F12  A2 F21
Fij is purely geometric and independent of temperature.

For an enclosure F11  F12  F13  ...  1

Example 1: for infinite parallel walls (1 and 2)

F12  F21  1 A2

Example 2: Wall 2 encloses wall 1

A1
F12  1; F21  A1 / A2 16
 Concentric black radiators
Flux from sphere 1
1   T14
Flux from sphere 2
1 R1 2   T24
R2
Heat flow from sphere 1
1  4 R12 T14
T1
 2 Heat flow from sphere 2
 2  4 R22 T24
T2
View Heat flow into sphere 1
4 4 R1
factor 2
of the total amount of radiation that 1,in  4 R2  T2
2
 4  R 2
 T 4

 2 1 2
is emitted by sphere 2 a fraction 4 R2

Net heat flow

F21  A1 A2  4 R1 4 R2
2 2

 net  1,in  1  4 R12  T24  T14 

is emitted into sphere 1,
17
 Measuring gas temperatures
Tt
Thermocouple gas flow
Tc
Tg
Heat balance on the thermocouple spherical tip
(assume no conduction along the thermocouple, tube wall as black body)
 conv   rad ,out   rad ,in  0 View factor
Fcouple-tube=1
 
hAc Tg  Tc  e Tc Ac  a Tt At Ftube couple  0
4 4
Ftube-couple=Ac / At
Ac
hAc  Tg  Tc   e T Ac  e Tt At
c
4
0
4 net emission
At
net  ez  ai
h  Tg  Tc   e  Tt 4  Tc4   0 Tc, Tg, Tt: temperature of thermocouple tip, gas
Correction factor: and tube wall, respectively
Ac: heat transfer area of the thermocouple tip
 e 4 4 
Tg  Tc    Tc  Tt   At: heat transfer area of the tube
 h  e, a : emission and absorption coefficients of the 18
 Hot gas from a reactor in a
cooling tube
Thermocouple
gas flow
Tc=500 Co

Tg=?

Tt=100 oC
 e 4 
Tg  Tc    Tc  Tt 4  
Tc = 773 K h 
Tt = 373 K
 0.6  5.67 108 
e = 0.6 (Cu)    7734  3734  
 = 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2.K4)  100 
h = 100 W/(m.K)  115 K
Ergo: if you measure a gas temperature of 500 oC in a tube of 100 oC,
the real gas temperature equals 615 oC
N.b.: we neglected the effects of transmissivity of the gas (a=e=0)
19
Unlike most solid bodies, gases are in many cases transparent to radiation.
What’s the temperature of the sun?
(1)
Given:
Te = 15 oC = 288 K (earth temp.)

Re = 6.4 × 106 m (earth diameter)

Rs Rs-e Rs = 7 × 108 m (sun diameter)

Rs-e = 1.5 × 1011 m (earth-sun distance)

Re earth and sun are “black”

no radiation and absorption in space

no net heat provided by earth

(not drawn to scale)
20
What’s the temperature of the sun?
(2)
Absorbed
radiation in from  e  4 Re2 Te 4  2.04  1017 W
sun to earth Radiation out from earth to space
View factor (fraction of heat
leaving from sun surface to
 i ,e   e  2.04  1017 W
reach earth surface)
 Re2 10
 s Fse   4.55  10
4 Rs2e
Re
 i ,e
e s   4.5  1026 W  4 Rs2 Ts4
Fse
 i,e s
Ts  4  6000 K (yellow)
s 4 Rs 
2

Rs-e
F
 i ,e
s   1.59 kW/m 2
Rs R 2
e 21
 Efficiency of a solar collector
Equivalent radiation temperature of clear skies Tsky = -40 oC = 233 K
Collector operating temperature at Tc = 130 oC = 403 K
Radiation in from the sun to the collector (earth):
 i ,e
s   1.59 kW/m 2

 R2e
Radiation out from the collector to sky:
A
 c  Ac Tc4  c Asky  Tsky
4
 Ac  Tc4  Tsky
4

Asky View factor
c    Tc4  Tsky
4
 Fcollector sky  1

 
 5.67  10 8 403 4  233 4  1320 W/m 2 Fsky collector 
Ac
Net gain: Asky

net  1.59  1.32  0.27 kW/m 2

22
 Solar collector for domestic use
Equivalent radiation temperature of clear skies Tsky = -40 oC = 233 K
Collector operating temperature at Tc = 70 oC = 343 K
Heat flux in from the sun to the collector (earth) due to radiation :
 i ,e
s   1.59 kW/m 2

 R2e
Heat flux out from the collector due to radiation:


c   Tc4  Tsky
4

 5.67  10 8  343 4
 233 4 
 618 W/m2

Net gain: net

  1.59  0.626  0.964 kW/m 2

23
 Spectral selective coatings
For efficiency increase of solar collectors  "z ,  8000 K
 Maximize absorption of solar radiation
 Minimize the loss due to radiation
6000 K
2880 2880
Peak wavelength back radiation max    7.1 μm
T 403
of solar collector:
2880 2880 1000 K
Peak wavelength solar light: max    0.48 μm
T 6000 0.1 1 10
Assume sun & collector mainly radiate at its peak wavelength: Wavelength
 (m)

0.48 m  7.1 m 24
 Spectral selective coatings
A coating has the following absorption coefficient
a0.48 μm  0.9  rad ,out
a7.1 μm  e7.1 μm  0.2  e7.1μm Ac T  a7.1μm
4 Ac
Asky Tsky
4
c
Asky
Kirchhoff’s law
Net gain  e7.1μm Ac  Tc4  Tsky
4

net  a0.48μm s  e7.1μm c  e7.1μm Ac c

at Tc  1300 C :
net  0.9  1.59  0.2  1.32  1.17 kW/m 2
If without coating
net, without coating  1.59  1.32  0.27 kW/m 2 25
 Heat transfer via combined conduction,
convection & radiation
Case 1: T
Copper electric wire r Conduction

Free convection Radiation

Tair
Under stationary condition, heat balance at the copper outer surface:
 H , conduction   H ,free convection   H ,radiation
Case 2:
o n Under stationary condition, heat balance:
u cti Free convection
nd
Co
Tair
 H , conduction in the insulation layer
r
Radiation   H , conduction in the foil
Insulation layer
Foil
  H ,free convection   H ,radiation 26
Cylinder Pipe
 Subjects
1. Introduction / relevance
2. Summary of physical transport phenomena 1
3. Flow phenomena
a. Laminar flow and turbulent flow
b. Computational fluid dynamics
c. Practical rheology
d. Flow around obstacles
e. Flow through beds of particles
4. Heat transport
f. Stationary/non-stationary heat conduction
g. Convective heat transfer
h. Heat transfer with phase change
i. Heat transport by radiation
5. Mass transport
j. Stationary/non-stationary diffusion
k. Mass transfer with forced convection
l. Mass transfer at interfaces
m. Mass transfer with chemical reaction
n. Combined heat and mass transport
27